1 


1MB  lr 


. 


•■    •  ■ 

.   .                                 !!ipl!i|i| 

MB  'ff0'M       WBMSi           h<£$£i 

IIH 

ill 

!  1  .■        I  ill  I!    :':    ■:    ;:  ■ 

i  i  ii  liiliiiiiiii  iliiiiii  iiiiiiii  i iiiiliiiiisii  iluiiiii.  '<■  \  ;«$$ 

The  Pronunciation 

of  Standard  English 

in  America 


BY 

GEORGE  PHILIP  KRAPP 

PROFESSOR   OF   ENGLISH   IN   COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 
OXFORD   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 


I    < 

'    1 
I    ■ 


Copyright,  1919 

by  Oxford  University  Press 

american  branch 


PRINTED    IN    THE    U     S.    A      BY 

QUINN    ft    BODEN    COMPANY.    INC. 

RAHWAY,    N.    J. 


Kg* 


PREFACE 


Whether  one  thinks  this  should  or  should  not  be  so, 
it  is  a  fact  that  most  cultivated  persons  in  America  nowa- 
days, and  an  increasing  number  in  England,  are  more  or 
less  self-conscious  about  their  speech.  The  present  very 
general  interest  in  the  practical  applications  of  the  science 
of  phonetics  is  one  of  the  proofs  of  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment. With  our  strange  mingling  of  races,  our  widely 
separated  but  rapidly  inter-communicating  local  units  of 
population,  our  constantly  shifting  social  boundaries  be- 
tween class  and  class,  it  is  inevitable  that,  in  America  at 
least,  such  should  be  the  case. 

When  people  become  conscious  of  so  familiar  an  activity 
as  speech,  it  means  that  changes  are  taking  place  in  it. 
The  universal  possession  of  all  persons  in  the  land,  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  of 
farmer,  artisan,  laborer  and  merchant,  speech  is  not  only 
the  great  social  solvent  which  makes  the  nation  one,  but 
also  the  readiest  test  by  which  such  differences  as  exist 
are  measured  and  known.  And  where  these  differences 
and  distinctions  arise  out  of  a  rapidly  developing  civiliza- 
tion, as  in  America,  it  is  often  extremely  hard  to  deter- 
mine their  value.  If  we  had  but  a  single  standard  of 
speech,  universally  accepted  and  practiced,  the  task  under- 
taken in  this  book  would  be  easy,  though  obviously  it 
would  be  unnecessary.  But  we  have  no  standard  beyond 
opinion,  which  in  a  democratic  society  must  always  be 
many-headed.     If  therefore  in  the  following  pages  the 

iii 


IV  PREFACE 

author  has  been  at  times  less  dogmatic  than  some  of  his 
readers  think  he  should  have  been,  his  plea  is  that  where 
there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice  among  reason- 
able people,  there  must  be  also  an  equally  broad  charity 
in  judgment.  Could  anything  be  more  absurd  than  to 
stigmatize  as  incorrect  a  pronunciation  which  is  actually 
in  general  use,  to  put  down  in  a  dictionary  only  one  pro- 
nunciation of  a  word  when  several  are  current  among 
cultivated  speakers?  All  cultivated  speakers  do  not 
speak  alike  in  America.  If  we  think  they  should,  that 
is  a  theory  hard  to  enforce  by  compelling  one  group  to 
yield  to  another.  To  be  sure,  opinion  may  be  well-in- 
formed or  ill-informed,  and  genuine  blunders  are  usually 
due  to  lack  of  information,  not  to  perversity.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  book  to  provide  a  rational  method  of 
examining  pronunciation,  the  most  important  of  the 
practical  aspects  of  speech:  in  order  that  those  who  have 
a  conscience  in  the  matter  may  exercise  it  with  justice 
both  to  themselves  and  to  others. 

The  materials  of  the  book  have  been  ordered  under  the 
several  sounds  of  the  language.  To  one  experienced  in 
phonetics,  no  other  plan  would  seem  possible,  and  though 
perhaps  at  first  embarrassed  by  an  unfamiliar  method, 
the  untrained  student  will  in  the  end  find  this  the  most 
profitable  way  of  approach  to  the  subject.  The  im- 
portant thing  is  to  acquire  skill  in  hearing  sounds  as 
sounds,  to  be  able  to  think  of  them  as  sounds  apart 
from  their  representation  in  conventional  spelling.  The 
market  is  plentifully  provided  with  dictionaries,  with 
alphabetical  lists  of  words  said  to  be  frequently  mis- 
pronounced. The  information  contained  in  these  books 
may  or  may  not  be  trustworthy,  but  the  best  of  them  can 
offer  little  help  to  the  student  who  wishes  to  observe  the 


PREFACE  V 

facts  for  himself  and  to  arrive  at  his  own  judgments. 
And  even  the  fullest  of  these  lists  cannot  possibly  be  com- 
plete or  contemporary.  Pronunciation  changes  day  by 
day,  and  dictionaries  soon  become  antiquated.  The  in- 
telligent person  is  one  who  makes  his  own  dictionary  as 
he  goes  along.  The  author's  intention  has  not  been, 
therefore,  to  provide  exhaustive  lists  of  words  which 
may  be  mispronounced,  but  to  show  how  the  whole  sub- 
ject should  be  approached.  Such  words  as  are  treated, 
however,  will  be  found  in  alphabetical  order  in  the  index 
at  the  end  of  the  book. 

Wherever  a  question  of  choice  between  two  pronun- 
ciations arises,  there  is  rarely  any  difficulty  in  making 
a  choice  after  the  facts  are  once  known.  It  is  the  province 
of  a  book  like  this  to  show  students  how  they  may  become 
sure  of  their  facts,  not  to  make  their  choices  for  them. 
The  author  has  endeavored,  however,  not  to  make  trouble 
where  there  really  is  none.  It  would  have  been  easy  to 
swell  the  number  of  '  mis-pronunciations '  by  culling 
from  the  lists  of  books  of  the  twenty-thousand-words- 
often-mispronounced  kind.  But  most  of  the  words 
recorded  in  such  books  are  not  mispronunciations.  They 
are  merely  rare  and  learned  words  which  few  persons 
ever  have  any  occasion  to  pronounce.  A  word  can  be 
said  to  have  acquired  a  pronunciation  in  the  English 
language  only  when  it  is  current  on  the  lips  of  English- 
speaking  people.  Otherwise  it  is  an  eye-word,  without 
an  established  phonetic  value.  The  instances  discussed 
in  the  present  volume  are  such  as  the  author  himself  has 
observed.  None  are  taken  at  second  hand  from  books. 
Though  they  may  not  correspond  to  every  other  person's 
particular  observations  and  special  difficulties  in  pro- 
nunciation,  what  they  may  lack  in   inclusiveness   will 


VI  PREFACE 

perhaps  be  compensated  for  by  the  fact  that  they  are 
neither  traditional  survivals  from  books  nor  fanciful 
dilemmas  of  a  theorist,  but  genuine  records  of  present 
speech  in  America. 

The  professional  student  of  phonetics  seems  to  find  it 
hard  to  resist  the  fascination  which  the  game  of  inventing 
symbols  exerts.  The  conventional  alphabet  is  obviously 
inadequate  for  any  scientific  purposes,  and  scores  of  pho- 
netic alphabets  have  been  invented  to  take  its  place.  If  a 
phonetic  alphabet  is  an  evil,  it  is  a  necessary  evil.  But 
moderation  should  be  practiced  in  the  exercise  of  this 
evil,  for  once  started,  there  is  obviously  no  limit  to  the 
number  of  symbols  one  may  devise  as  records  of  his 
observations.  It  may  be  said,  moreover,  that  in  the  end 
not  even  the  most  elaborate  phonetic  alphabet  can  record 
all  the  shadings  and  nuances  of  speech  sounds  current 
daily  in  good  use.  For  one  seeking  absolute  complete- 
ness and  precision,  some  device,  richer  in  possibilities 
than  an  alphabet  must  be  discovered. 

In  this  book  neither  absolute  precision  nor  a  very  high 
degree  of  precision  in  the  notation  of  sounds  has  been 
attempted.  The  author's  aim  having  been  not  to  elabo- 
rate, but  to  simplify  as  much  as  possible,  it  may  occasion- 
ally be  felt  that  certain  sounds  have  gone  unrecorded. 
Thus  the  alphabet  employed  provides  symbols  for  only 
two  pronunciations  of  the  vowel  in  got,  hot,  not,  etc., 
that  is  the  short  of  the  vowels  which  appear  in  the  first 
syllables  of  father  and  author.  Perhaps  a  third  inter- 
mediary sound  should  have  been  recorded,  representing 
a  vowel  approximately  with  the  same  tongue  position 
as  the  vowel  of  father,  but  with  slight  rounding  of  the 
lips.  Likewise  the  two  vowels  of  a  word  like  city  are  not 
quite  the  same,  though  they  have  been  indicated  in  the 


PREFACE  Vll 

present  volume  by  the  same  phonetic  symbol.  Yet  again, 
the  initial  consonants  in  pairs  of  words  like  haul  and  heel, 
gone  and  geese,  call  and  keel  are  acoustically  different 
and  are  organically  formed  in  different  ways.  The  quality 
of  the  consonant,  in  these  instances,  is  dependent  upon 
the  vowel  by  which  it  is  followed.  In  a  word  like  city, 
the  second  vowel  may  be  said  to  be  an  unstressed  variant 
of  the  first.  And  whenever  it  is  possible  to  take  account 
of  sound  variations  in  this  way  by  means  of  a  general 
explanatory  statement,  the  author  has  chosen  to  do  this 
in  preference  to  adding  to  the  number  of  symbols.  Where 
one  has  several  relatively  slight  variations  in  pronuncia- 
tion, as  in  the  pronunciation  of  not,  hot,  got,  etc.,  the 
author  has  again  preferred  to  indicate  what  might  be 
called  the  extremes  of  tendency  by  means  of  phonetic 
symbols,  filling  in  the  modifications  between  these  ex- 
tremes by  means  of  a  descriptive  statement.  No  intro- 
ductory work  on  phonetics  can  read  like  an  algebraic 
formula,  or  if  it  did,  no  one  would  read  it. 

Perhaps  a  word  of  explanation,  if  not  of  apology,  is 
needed  for  the  use  of  the  word  American  as  signifying  the 
United  States.  In  this  the  author  is  merely  following 
general  usage  and  does  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  Eng- 
lish of  Canada  either  is  or  should  be  like  the  English  of 
the  United  States.  Canada  is  fortunate  in  having  the 
adjective  Canadian,  but  we  have  no  adjective  form  for 
the  United  States.  If  we  seem  to  be  appropriating  a 
general  term  for  a  specific  meaning,  we  would  point  out 
that  such  is  not  the  case,  for  American  has  practically 
ceased  to  be  a  general  term.  By  this  same  warrant  of 
usage,  the  term  English  has  been  applied  to  the  speech 
of  America,  just  as  it  must  be  applied  to  every  country 
where  the  English  language  is  spoken.    If  a  more  exact 


Vlll  PREFACE 

limitation  of  the  general  term  is  required,  we  must  speak 
of  American  English,  of  British  English,  of  Canadian 
English,  of  any  of  the  half  dozen  varieties  of  English 
that  have  established  for  themselves  local  homes  upon 
the  face  of  the  globe. 

Geographical  limitations  in  American  speech,  especially 
American  standard  speech,  are  extremely  difficult  to 
determine  with  precision,  and  in  this  book  have  been 
indicated  only  in  the  most  general  terms.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  American  cultivated  speech  is  extraor- 
dinarily mixed.  Relatively  few  Americans  spend  all  their 
lives  in  one  locality,  and  even  if  they  do,  they  cannot 
possibly  escape  coming  into  contact  with  Americans  from 
other  localities.  The  result  is  that  a  'pure  dialect,'  if 
any  such  thing  ever  does  exist,  must  be  sought  elsewhere 
than  in  our  much-traveling  and  very  adaptable  cultivated 
and  educated  classes.  The  universal  negative  is  the 
last  form  of  dogmatism  upon  which  the  careful  student 
of  American  speech  will  insist.  It  is  safer  to  indulge  in  a 
universal  affirmative,  to  say  that  any  pronunciation 
which  may  occur  in  cultivated  speech,  may  occur  in  any 
region  of  America.  For  several  large  divisions,  especially 
in  the  speech  of  the  more  obviously  typical  local  repre- 
sentatives, we  have  a  fairly  defined  feeling.  We  can  dis- 
tinguish with  some  certainty  Eastern  and  Western  and 
Southern  speech,  but  beyond  this  the  author  has  little 
confidence  in  those  confident  experts  who  think  they  can 
tell  infallibly,  by  the  test  of  speech,  a  native  of  Hartford 
from  a  native  of  Providence,  or  a  native  of  Philadelphia 
from  a  native  of  Atlanta,  or  even,  if  one  insist  on  infalli- 
bility, a  native  of  Chicago  from  a  native  of  Boston. 
This  means  of  course  that  geographical  distinctions  are 
^  not  of  prime  importance  in  the  discussion  of  standard 


PREFACE  IX 

American  speech.  Cultivated  Americans  do  not  all 
speak  alike,  but  on  the  other  hand,  they  do  not  move  in 
mutually  exclusive  and  self-centered  circles  in  their 
habits  of  speech.  Holmes  insists,  in  the  Autocrat,  that 
the  accent  of  a  word  may  tell  you  all  you  want  to  know 
about  the  origin  and  possibilities  of  a  person.  Perhaps 
it  may,  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that  such  judgments  v 
are  likely  to  place  the  placer  quite  as  inescapably  as  they 
do  his  victim. 

The  term  standard  speech,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  has 
been  used  by  the  author  without  a  very  exact  definition. 
Everybody  knows  that  there  is  no  type  of  speech  uniform 
and  accepted  in  practice  by  all  persons  in  America.  What 
the  author  has  called  standard  may  perhaps  be  best  de- 
fined negatively,  as  the  speech  which  is  least  likely  to 
attract  attention  to  itself  as  being  peculiar  to  any  class 
or  locality.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  speech  does  not  often  J 
attract  notice  to  itself  unless  it  is  markedly  peculiar.  For 
the  most  part  when  one  is  listening  to  the  speech  of  others, 
one  is  intent  upon  getting  the  meaning,  not  upon  observ- 
ing the  form.  In  consequence  there  is  likely  to  be,  even  in 
what  we  may  justly  call  standard  speech,  a  considerable 
area  of  negligible  variation,  negligible,  that  is,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  practical  use  of  language.  To  the 
conscientious  and  critical  listener,  many  of  these  varia- 
tions may  seem  reprehensible,  but  only  so  by  the  test  of 
some  theoretical  or  ideal  standard.  In  the  following 
pages,  wherever  the  author  has  put  down  a  form  or  several 
forms  of  speech  without  defining  them  as  provincial,  or 
dialectal,  or  vulgar,  or  artificial,  he  would  have  the  usages 
taken  as  being,  in  his  opinion,  standard,  and  if  two  or 
more  differing  standard  pronunciations  are  given,  the 
implication  intended  is  that  a  speaker  is  as  likely  to  offend 


X  PREFACE 

as  many  critical  listeners  by  using  one  as  by  using  an- 
other of  the  pronunciations. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  this  book  has 
not  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  differ- 
ence between  American  and  British  pronunciation,  or  of 
proving  that  either  one  of  these  is  better  than  the  other. 
Whenever  reference  has  been  made  to  British  pronuncia- 
tion, the  comparison  has  been  made  in  order  to  indicate 
more  definitely  the  facts  of  American  pronunciation. 
The  concern  of  the  book  is  above  all  with  these  facts,  and 
as  it  cannot  well  be  denied  that  we  have  an  attained 
result  in  the  pronunciation  of  English  in  America,  it 
would  seem  that  our  first  obligation  is  to  become  aware 
of  the  facts,  to  recognize  their  existence  just  as  we  recog- 
nize the  existence  of  our  other  distinctive  social  institu- 
tions. On  the  basis  of  such  knowledge,  one  may  at  least 
intelligently  proceed  to  the  building  of  theories  for  the 
improvement  of  American  speech,  if  one  is  so  moved. 
Yet  it  seems  scarcely  credible  that  one  who  knows  the 
facts  should  think  it  possible  to  impose  British  standards 
upon  American  speech,  or  to  do  anything  but  ally  himself 
to  the  best  tendencies,  as  each  observer  sympathetically 
views  them,  of  our  native  American  pronunciation. 

An  important  section  of  the  book,  to  which  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  student  give  very  special  attention,  is 
that  at  the  conclusion,  consisting  of  passages  in  phonetic 
transcription.  These  should  be  carefully  studied  in  de- 
tail, and  every  student  should  make  similar  transcriptions, 
based  upon  his  observations.  The  first  five  transcriptions 
here  presented  as  examples  are  representations  of  standard 
pronunciation,  as  observed  and  recorded  by  the  author 
himself.  Passages  six  to  twelve  are  records  of  the  pro- 
nunciation of  several  individuals  taken  down  for  this 


PREFACE  XI 

book.  They  represent  varieties  of  standard  pronuncia- 
tion, the  intention  being  that  they  should  be  indicative 
but  not  exhaustive  of  the  great  number  of  current  forms 
of  standard  speech.  Passages  thirteen  to  sixteen  are 
phonetic  transcriptions  of  literary  records  of  American 
dialect  speech,  and  they  have  been  included  to  afford 
material  for  the  comparison  of  standard  with  dialect 
speech.  Finally  passages  seventeen  to  nineteen  may  be 
used  for  a  comparative  study  of  British  and  American 
speech.  In  England  as  in  America  differing  opinions  are 
held  on  the  question  of  standard  speech,  though  both 
scholars  and  general  public  seem  pretty  well  agreed  that 
Southern  British  has  greater  right  to  be  regarded  as 
standard  than  any  other  form  of  British  speech.  Northern 
British,  however,  stands  a  good  deal  closer  to  American 
English  than  does  Southern  British.  In  fact  it  is  only 
rather  extreme  forms  of  Southern  British  which  seem 
markedly  different  from  American  speech. 

For  permission  to  reproduce  the  passage  from  Jane 
Eyre,  the  author  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  Mr. 
Daniel  Jones,  Reader  in  Phonetics  in  the  University  of 
London.  A  similar  obligation  extends  to  other  writers 
who  have  permitted  him  to  make  phonetic  transcriptions 
of  passages  from  their  published  works,  and  a  greater  to 
those  persons  who  have  submitted  to  his  inquisitions  and 
who  have  sacrificed  time  and  convenience  to  enable  him 
to  make  phonetic  transcriptions  of  their  pronunciation. 
Thanks  are  due  to  Professor  H.  M.  Ayres  for  aid  with  the 
proof,  and  Mr.  William  Tilly  who  helpfully  criticized  some 
of  the  opening  sections  of  the  book.  The  author  is  in- 
debted also  to  the  members  of  various  classes  before 
which  he  has  lectured  in  the  Summer  Session  as  well  as 
in  the  regular  sessions  of  Columbia  University.    If  one 


Xll  PREFACE 


cannot  travel  everywhere  in  America,  the  next  best 
substitute  is  to  be  seated  at  a  great  city  university  like 
Columbia,  whither  students  come  from  every  nook  and 
cranny  of  the  country,  eager  to  impart  as  well  as  to 
receive  information. 


Columbia  University 
May,  1918. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface iii 

Symbols xiv 

I.  The  Mechanism  of  Speech 1 

II.   Description  of  Sounds 14 

III.  Sounds  and  Their  Occurrence 57 

Exercises 143 

Bibliographical  Note 149 

Transcriptions 151 

Index  of  Words 213 


Xlll 


SYMBOLS 

VOWELS 

Symbol 

Key 

Transcription 

W 

710£ 

[nat] 

[ai] 

father 

['faitSai] 

[a:] 

fast 

[faist] 

M 

hat 

[hat] 

[e],  [e],  [e:] 

vacation 

[verke-$9n] 

late 

[le:t] 

[e] 

get 

[get] 

[e:] 

there 

[Sen] 

M 

about 

[e'baut] 

W 

bird 

[b9jd] 

[i],  [i],  M 

expediency 

[eks'pidiansi] 

freedom 

['fridam] 

free 

[Mi] 

M 

sit 

[sit] 

[o],  [<>•],  [oi] 

locomotive 

[^loko'motiv] 

note 

[no  it] 

[o] 

auditory 

['odiHon] 

M 

law 

[lo:] 

[u],  [m] 

altruistic 

[seltru'istik] 

true 

[tnii] 

M 

bush 

[buS] 

W 

but 

[bAt] 

[a:] 

hurt 

xiv 

[hAit] 

SYMBOLS 

XV 

DIPHTHONGS 

Symboi 

,    Key 

Transcription 

Symbol 

Key 

Transcription 

[ei] 

play 

[plei] 

[an] 

house 

[haus] 

[ai] 

ride 

[raid] 

[01] 

boil 

[boil] 

[oo] 

go 

[gou] 

[ju] 

mute 

[mjut] 

CONSONANTS 

Symboi 

,    Key 

Transcription 

Symbol 

Key 

Transcription 

[b] 

bib 

[bib] 

['] 

first 

[fajst] 

[d] 

did 

[did] 

M 

best 

[best] 

[g] 

gw 

[gig] 

[z] 

rise 

[raiz] 

W 

house 

[haus] 

Bl 

wish 

[wig 

[J] 

yawl 

[joil] 

[3] 

pleasure     ['ple^si] 

M 

king 

[kiq] 

[t] 

talk 

[toik] 

[i] 

land 

[land] 

[e] 

tiling 

[0ir>] 

[m] 

man 

[ma3n] 

[6] 

that 

[Saet] 

[n] 

not,  knot    [nat] 

[f] 

stiff 

[stif] 

fo] 

sing 

[sir)] 

[v] 

drive 

[draiv] 

M 

tap 

[tsep] 

[w] 

wet 

[wet] 

M 

very 

[veri] 

[*] 

whet 

[Met] 

:  after  a  sound  indicates  a  long  sound,  as  in  father  ['fo-ooj],  [joil]. 
•  after  a  sound  indicates  a  half-long  sound,  as  in  vacation  [ve'ke-$9nj. 
'  indicates  a  full  or  main  stress  on  the  following  syllable,  as  in  about 

[a'bautj. 
k  indicates  a  secondary  or  half  stress  on  the  following  syllable,  as  in 

bookshelf  ['bukv$elf]. 


0         j     »         » 


THE  MECHANISM   OF  SPEECH 

1.  Before  it  is  possible  to  discuss  intelligently  or 
intelligibly  the  sounds  of  any  speech,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  by  just  what  activities  of  the  speech  organs  the 
sounds  are  formed,  and  to  have  some  means  of  symboliz- 
ing the  several  sounds  with  approximate  precision,  that 
is,  a  phonetic  alphabet.  In  this  book  all  phonetic  rep- 
resentations of  sounds  will  be  enclosed  within  square 
brackets  and  will  immediately  follow  the  conventional 
spelling  when  the  two  are  employed  together.  The 
phonetic  alphabet  is  that  of  the  International  Phonetic 
Association,  with  several  slight  modifications. 

2.  Though  there  is  a  very  high  degree  of  similarity 
in  the  way  in  which  different  persons  form  the  various 
sounds  of  speech,  all  speakers  do  not  necessarily  produce 
what  seems  to  be  acoustically  the  same  sound  by  exactly 
the  same  formations  of  the  organs  of  speech.  The  prime 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  physical  equipment,  for  example 
the  number  and  arrangement  of  teeth  or  the  angle  of  the 
jaws,  is  not  the  same  in  all  persons.  An  experimental 
method,  applied  by  each  person  upon  himself,  is  there- 
fore a  necessity  in  the  study  of  speech.  In  the  end  all 
organic  analysis  of  speech  must  be  an  analysis  of  indi- 
vidual speech,  and  one  must  always  make  a  certain  amount 
of  allowance  for  personal  peculiarities,  both  in  one's  own 
speech  and  in  that  of  others.     Extended  observation, 

1 


■J 


2  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

however,  enables  one  to  make  generalizations  which  hold 
for  a  very  considerable  majority  of  cases. 

« 

3.  All  speech  sounds  in  English  are  made  by  air  as  it 

is  expelled  through  the  confining  walls  of  the  larynx,  the 
mouth  and  the  nose,  the  specific  character  of  the  sound 
being  determined  in  each  case  by  the  special  organ  or 
group  of  organs  which  function  most  actively  in  shaping 
or  obstructing  the  air  passage.  English  has  no  indrawing 
sounds  in  articulate  speech. 

4.  When  all  the  speech  organs  are  relaxed  and  the 
breath  is  allowed  to  issue  without  any  constraint,  it  nor- 
mally produces  no  sound,  though  it  may  sometimes  be 
heard  as  breathing  or  'heavy  breathing/  especially  when 
one  breathes  with  the  mouth  open  or  when  the  nasal  pas- 
sages are  abnormally  obstructed.  When  the  lips  are  closed 
and  the  breath  is  expelled  forcibly  through  the  nose,  it  pro- 
duces the  familiar  sniff  of  scorn  or  contempt,  which  is  of 
course  not  an  articulate  speech  sound.  Articulate  speech 
sounds  are  only  those  sounds  which  are  articulated,  or 
joined,  to  other  sounds  in  the  formation  of  sound  groups 
or  words.  The  articulate  speech  sounds  of  one  language 
are  not  the  same  as  those  of  another.  French  and  English, 
for  example,  have  some  sounds  which  are  alike,  but  in 
the  main,  each  has  its  own  system  of  sounds,  specially 
selected  from  the  practically  limitless  number  of  sounds 
which  the  human  organs  of  speech  are  capable  of  produc- 
ing. 

5.  Voiced  and  Voiceless  Sounds.  When  the  rift  between 
the  vocal  chords  is  so  narrowed  by  the  muscles  which 
control  the  tightening  and  loosing  of  the  chords  that  the 
air  from  the  lungs  as  it  is  driven  through  this  rift,  known 


THE    MECHANISM    OF   SPEECH  3 

as  the  glottis,  sets  the  edges  of  the  chords  into  vibration, 
the  result  is  what  is  technically  known  as  Voice  or 
Voiced  sounds  (sometimes  called  Sonants).  When  the 
air  issuing  from  the  lungs  produces  a  sound  without 
setting  the  vocal  chords  in  vibration,  the  sound  is  Voice- 
less (also  called  Breathed  or  Surd).  The  difference  be- 
tween voiced  and  voiceless  sounds  is  plainly  audible  to 
the  observing  ear.  and  may  be  further  tested  by  placing 
the  finger  on  the  Adam's  apple,  when  the  vibrations  will 
be  distinctly  felt  in  the  case  of  the  voiced  sounds.  In 
testing  consonants  in  this  way,  the  consonant  proper 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  vowel  that  accompanies 
it  in  the  conventional  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
v/All  vowels  are  voiced,  but  some  consonants  are  ac- 
companied by  voice,  e.g.,  b  [b]  in  be,  d  [d]  in  do,  g  [g]  in 
go,  th  [ft]  in  father,  z,  s  [z]  in  prize,  rise,  while  others  are 
voiceless,  e.g.,  p  [p]  in  pay,  t  [t]  in  tea,  k  [k]  in  key,  th  [6]  in 
thin,  c,  s  [s]  in  rice,  sing.  Voiced  and  voiceless  consonants 
usually  go  in  pairs,  that  is,  [b]  represents  a  voiced  sound 
of  which  [p]  is  the  voiceless  equivalent;  so  also  [d]  is 
voiced,  [t]  is  voiceless;  [g]  is  voiced,  [k]  is  voiceless;  [v]  is 
voiced,  [f]  is  voiceless;  the  medial  consonant  of  pleasure 
[rple39j]  is  voiced,  and  its  voiceless  equivalent  is  the  final 
consonant  of  wish  [wi$];  th  is  voiced  [tS]  in  then,  but 
voiceless  [6]  in  thin.  It  is  advisable  for  students  to  train 
themselves  carefully  in  observing  the  difference  between 
voiced  and  voiceless  sounds  so  that  the  distinction  be- 
comes immediately  clear  with  reference  to  any  particular 
sound  as  soon  as  it  is  heard. 

6.  Consonants  are  often  written  in  the  conventional 
spelling  with  the  symbol  which  ordinarily  represents  a 
voiced  sound,  but  the  sounds  so  written  are  pronounced 


4  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

voiceless  when  they  are  assimilated  to  other  voiceless 
sounds  in  their  vicinity,  as  the  final  consonant  in  walked 
[woikt],  stripped  [stnpt];  or  they  are  written  with  the 
symbol  for  a  voiceless  consonant  which  is  assimilated  to 
a  neighboring  voiced  sound,  as  in  eggs  [egz];  paths  [paiSz]; 
tags  [taegz]  as  compared  with  tacks  [taeks];  gooseberry 
['guiz^beri],  in  which  [s]  of  goose  becomes  [z]  by  assimila- 
tion to  the  voiced  consonant  [b]. 

7.  Frequently  also  a  consonant  which  is  under  a  stress 
and  voiceless,  becomes  voiced  when  not  under  the  stress, 
as  in  exhibition  Peksi'bijon],  but  exhibit  [eg'zibit].  It 
may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  stress  tends  to  pre- 
serve voiceless  consonants  as  such,  but  lack  of  stress,  or 
relatively  light  stress,  tends  to  permit  them  to  become 
voiced.  This  applies  not  only  to  stress  within  the  word, 
but  also  to  stress  in  the  word  group  or  phrase.  Thus  of 
is  usually  a  lightly  stressed  word  in  its  group,  e.g.,  a 
man  of  ability,  and  its  phonetic  value  is  [gv],  as  in  [o 
'maen  av  a'biliti].  The  adverb  off  [o:f]  is  etymologically 
the  same  word,  but  is  stressed  and  consequently  retains 
its  voiceless  consonant,  as  in  it  fell  off  [it  'fel  'oif]. 

8.  The  symbol  x  of  the  ordinary  spelling  represents  a 
double  consonant  sound  [ks]  as  in  tax  [taeks];  j,  'also 
sometimes  g,  represents  [ds]  as  in  jug  [d3Ag],  gem 
[d3em];  ch  stands  for  [t§]  as  in  chin  [t$m].  On  the 
other  hand,  two  symbols  are  used  in  the  ordinary  spelling 
for  [S]  [0],  as  in  then  [Sen],  thin  [0in],  where  the  con- 
sonant is  but  a  simple  sound.  The  spelling  q  followed  by 
u  stands  for  [kw]  as  in  quick  [kwik]. 

9.  The  Mouth.  Besides  the  vocal  chords,  the  organs 
most  actively   concerned   in   the  production  of  speech 


THE   MECHANISM   OF   SPEECH  5 

sounds  are  the  tongue,  the  palate,  the  teeth,  the  gums 
(alveoli),  the  lips  and  the  nose.  The  tongue,  an  extremely 
flexible  combination  of  muscles,  may  be  moved  as  a  whole, 
and  at  the  same  time  one  part  of  it  is  commonly  much 
more  active  than  the  rest.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
at  least  four  main  surface  regions  of  the  tongue,  the  back, 
which  we  may  observe  as  being  elevated  to  form  the 
stoppage  producing  the  initial  consonant,  a  voiceless 
stop  consonant,  in  call  [ko:l];  the  front  (sometimes  also 
called  the  middle)  which  is  the  region  immediately  in 
front  of  the  back  and  which  may  be  observed  as  forming 
the  stoppage  producing  the  voiceless  stop  consonant  in 
kill  [kil] ;  the  blade  of  the  tongue,  which  is  the  surface 
just  forward  of  the  front,  readily  observed  as  functioning 
in  the  production  of  the  vowel  sound  of  seat  [si:t];  and 
finally  the  point  or  tip  of  the  tongue,  which  plays  the 
most  considerable  part  in  the  production  of  the  sound  of 
d  [d],  t  [t],  th  [6]  [<5].  In  the  analysis  of  some  of  the  vowels, 
it  is  necessary  to  divide  further  the  surface  regions  of  the 
tongue  between  front  and  back.  The  term  half-front 
means  a  position  between  front  and  back  but  nearer 
front  than  back,  and  half-back  means  a  position  between 
the  two  but  nearer  back  than  front. 

10.  The  vertical  position  of  the  tongue  as  a  whole 
may  also  be  varied,  and  it  is  important  to  distinguish  at 
least  three  vertical  positions,  high,  mid  and  low.  When 
the  tongue  is  in  high  position,  the  body  of  it  is  raised  so 
that  it  is  felt  along  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  against  the 
upper  teeth,  as  in  the  vowel  of  he  [hi:];  when  it  is  in  the 
mid  position,  as  in  the  stressed  vowel  of  fetter  ['fetai],  it 
extends  along  the  middle  of  the  mouth  and  the  point 
rests  against  the  roots  of  the  lower  front  teeth;  when  it 


6  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

is  in  low  position,  as  in  the  vowel  of  haul  [hoil],  the  tongue 
rests  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth  and  the  point  touches 
the  lower  gums.  The  surface  divisions  and  the  vertical 
positions  of  the  tongue  are  important  in  analyzing  both 
vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  but  more  important  for 
vowels  than  consonants.  A  looking-glass  should  be 
used  as  an  aid  in  studying  the  movements  and  positions 
of  the  tongue.  For  a  more  exact  analysis  of  the  vertical 
positions  of  the  tongue,  one  might  consider  five  positions, 
as  follows,  high,  high-mid,  mid,  low-mid,  low. 

11.  Tense  and  Slack  Sounds.  One  other  distinction 
with  respect  to  the  tongue  is  significant,  especially  in  the 
study  of  vowel  sounds,  that  is,  the  degree  of  its  muscu- 
lar tension.  It  may  be  slack  (or  relaxed),  as  in  the  vowel 
of  sit  [sit],  or  tense  (or  flexed),  as  in  the  vowel  of  he  [hi:]. 
When  the  vowel  is  slack  its  vertical  position  is  slightly 
lower  than  when  tense,  but  not  so  much  so  as  would 
follow  a  general  shifting  of  the  body  of  the  tongue.  The 
vowels  of  he  and  sit  are  both  high  vowels,  the  former 
being  high  blade  tense,  the  latter  high  blade  slack.  The 
sides  of  the  mouth  and  the  lips  generally  are  also  likely 
to  be  held  more  firmly  in  pronouncing  a  tense  than  in 
pronouncing  a  slack  sound.  All  long  and  stressed  vowels 
are  relatively  tenser  than  short  or  unstressed  vowels.  A 
phonetic  alphabet  of  high  precision  should  have  a  means 
for  indicating  degrees  of  tenseness,  but  for  practical 
purposes  perhaps  these  general  remarks  and  those  to  be 
found  under  the  discussion  of  the  separate  sounds  will 

* 

prove  as  useful  as  an  elaborate  system  of  representation, 
and  less  distracting.  Speakers  differ  widely  in  the  degree 
of  tenseness  and  slackness  of  their  sounds,  a  slow  and 
lazy  speaker  often  having  none  of  the  tense  vowel  sounds 


THE   MECHANISM    OF   SPEECH  7 

which  are  characteristic  of  a  cultivated  and  vigorous 
enunciation.  The  only  way  of  testing  the  organic  dif- 
ference between  tense  and  slack  sounds  is  by  observing 
the  difference  in  muscular  sensation  which  attends  the 
production  of  them.  By  focusing  attention  upon  these 
sensations,  one  may  become  as  clearly  conscious  of 
muscular  tension  in  the  tongue  as  of  muscular  tension  in 
the  arms  or  legs. 

12.  Stops  and  Continuants.  The  column  of  air  as  it 
issues  may  be  completely  stopped  by  the  organs  of 
speech,  with  a  sudden  release  or  explosion,  or  only  par- 
tially stopped,  with  a  gradual  emission  of  the  breath. 
When  it  is  completely  stopped,  the  sounds  produced  are 
stop  consonants  (also  called  explosives,  or  plosives),  e.g., 
d  in  did  [did],  p  in  pip  [pip],  b  in  bib  [bib].  When  the  air 
passage  is  only  partly  obstructed,  the  sound  produced  is 
a  continuant  consonant,  e.g.,  the  sounds  represented  in 
the  conventional  alphabet  by  r,  1,  m,  n,  th,  f ,  v,  s,  z,  h,  ch, 
sh,  y.  Stop  consonants  are  instantaneous,  but  continu- 
ants share  with  vowels  the  possibility  of  being  lengthened 
indefinitely.  The  difference  between  vowel  and  conso- 
nant is  largely  one  of  degree,  a  vowel  being  a  sound  pro- 
duced without  any  notable  obstruction  of  the  vocal 
passage,  a  consonant,  one  in  which  the  air  current  is 
definitely  obstructed,  either  wholly  or  partially.  Certain 
vowels,  such  as  the  vowel  [ii]  when  pronounced  very 
tensely,  or  the  vowel  [u]  pronounced  with  excessive 
rounding,  shade  imperceptibly  into  the  continuant  conso- 
nants [j],"[w].  Normally,  however,  the  distinction  between 
vowel  and  consonant  is  quite  clear.  The  continuant 
consonants  r,  1,  m,  n  are  sometimes  called  semivowels, 
and  they  may  constitute  syllables  by  themselves  without 


8  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

an  accompanying  vowel,  as  in  winter  ['wmtij,  table 
['teiblj,  heaven  ['hevn].  Words  of  this  type  may,  of  course, 
be  pronounced  with  a  vowel  before  the  final  consonant, 
that  is,  ['wmtai],  ['teibol],  ['hevon],  but  these  would  be 
very  formal  pronunciations.  When  a  consonant  is  syl- 
labic, a  dot  may  be  placed  under  it  to  indicate  this 
fact.  This  is  not  necessary,  however,  since  a  consonant 
which  is  syllabic  will  naturally  be  pronounced  so  without 
special  direction. 

13.  Stop  consonants,  both  voiced  and  voiceless,  though 
especially  the  latter,  are  pronounced  in  English  with 
such  a  violent  explosion  of  the  breath,  that  they  are 
mechanically  followed  by  a  slight,  but  distinctly  audible 
breath  continuant,  [h].  A  more  exact  representation  of 
the  consonants  in  dig,  toy,  etc.,  would  therefore  be 
[dhigh],  [thoi],  etc.  This  slight  after-sound  will  not  be 
indicated  in  the  phonetic  transcriptions  of  the  present 
volume,  the  general  statement  here  made  being  intended 
to  cover  all  instances,  but  the  phenomena  should  be  care- 
fully studied.  Note  that  there  is  a  greater  aspiration 
after  an  initial  than  after  a  final  consonant,  as  in  pop;  or 
when  a  consonant  stands  alone,  as  in  pool,  than  when  in 
close  combination  with  another  consonant,  as  in  spool, 
cf.  also  tin,  sting,  peach,  speech,  etc.;  or  when  a  consonant 
bears  a  relatively  heavy  stress,  than  when  lightly  stressed, 
as  in  the  two  stop  consonants  of  paper,  the  two  [t]  sounds 
of  potato,  the  two  [k]  sounds  of  cocoa ;  or  after  a  voiceless 
than  after  a  voiced  stop,  cf.  toe  and  dough.  The  extent 
to  which  the  aspiration  is  present  thus  seems  to  depend 
upon  the  degree  of  intensity  or  energy  with  which  the 
explosions  are  made.  With  some  speakers  the  aspiration 
is  scarcely  audible  at  all,  though  such  speakers  are  rare 


THE  MECHANISM   OF  SPEECH  9 

and  are  usually  of  a  somewhat  listless  habit  in  speech. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  extreme  of  aspiration  is  present  in 
some  forms  of  dialect  speech,  see  below,  p.  202. 

14.  In  words  like  better,  winter,  putty,  and  in  general 
in  words  in  which  a  stressed  stop  is  followed  by  an  un- 
stressed -er,  or  an  unstressed  vowel,  the  stop  is  sometimes 
pronounced  without  aspiration,  the  final  syllable  -er 
being  ordinarily  represented  merely  by  a  syllabic  r,  i.e., 
['beta],  ['winti].  But  the  pronunciation  with  the  stop 
consonant  aspirated  is  to  be  preferred.  When  a  voiceless 
stop  is  not  aspirated,  it  commonly  «sounds  like  a  voiced 
stop,  as  in  pronunciations  like  ['windj],  ['bedi],  ['wodi], 
['ledi],  fpAdi],  for  winter,  better,  water,  letter,  putty. 
See  §  240. 

15.  When  two  stop  consonants  come  together,  the 
first  of  the  two  is  usually  pronounced  with  an  incomplete 
explosion  of  the  breath.  Thus  words  like  looked  or  be- 
fogged are  not  pronounced  with  a  fully  formed  [k]  as  in 
look,  or  a  fully  formed  [g]  as  in  fog,  followed  in  the  former 
case  by  [t],  in  the  latter  by  [d].  If  they  were,  the  complete 
phonetic  form  of  such  words  would  be  something  like 
[lukhth],  [bi'foghdh].  What  happens  is  that  the  organic 
position  for  [k]  or  [g]  is  assumed,  is  then  held  for  a  moment, 
the  organic  position  for  the  following  stop  being  arrived 
at  before  any  explosion  takes  place.  In  consequence, 
there  is  only  one  complete  explosion  in  looked  befogged, 
and  many  similar  consonant  combinations.  There  is, 
however,  a  very  slight  fricative  consonant  sound,  a  kind 
of  [h],  which  is  heard  after  the  vowel  and  before  the  pause. 
Analytically,  a  word  like  looked  would  consist  of  the 
initial  consonant,  the  vowel,  the  slight  frictional  glide 
before  the  stop  position  for  [k]  is  completely  assumed,  a 


10  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

pause,  and  finally  the  explosion  which  produces  [t].    See 
§346. 

16.  Palate  and  Nose.  The  palate  may  be  considered 
as  composed  of  two  parts,  the  soft-palate  (or  velum),  at 
the  back  of  the  mouth,  and  the  hard-palate,  which  forms 
the  concave  roof  of  the  mouth.  In  front  of  the  hard- 
palate  lies  the  bony  ridge  of  the  alveoli  or  gums.  The 
hard-palate  is  immovable,  but  the  soft-palate  is  subject  to 
muscular  control  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will. 
When  it  is  raised,  as  for  the  most  part  it  is  in  speaking,  it 
closes  the  entrance  to  the  nasal  canals,  hence  the  name 
velum,  'veil.'  When  it  is  lowered,  the  air  is  permitted  to 
pass  through  the  nose,  as  in  breathing  or  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  nasal  consonants  n  [n]  as  in  sin  [sin],  m  [m]  as 
in  him  [him],  ng  [n]  as  in  song,  sing  [son],  [sin].  In  pro- 
nouncing a  nasal  consonant,  no  breath  is  permitted  to 
escape  through  the  mouth,  but  the  current  is  stopped 
either  at  the  lips,  as  in  [m],  or  within  the  mouth  by  the 
pressure  of  the  tongue  against  the  front  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  as  in  [n],  or  further  back,  as  in  [n]. 

"  17.  Nasal  Vowels.  English  has  no  nasal  vowels  in 
recognized  good  use,  though  with  many  speakers  in 
America,  almost  all  the  vowels,  but  especially  the  low 
and  mid  slack  vowels,  are  nasalized,  and  at  the  same  time 
are  lengthened  or  'drawled,'  see  §§  80-82,  128.  The 
nasal  pronunciation  of  vowels  is  usually  the  result  of  a 
lazy  and  unenergetic  enunciation.  It  is  by  no  means 
peculiar  to  American  speech,  but  is  heard  in  England,  if 
not  as  generally,  often  quite  as  markedly  as  in  America. 
Since  nasal  vowels  result  from  lowering  the  velum  and 
thus  permitting  air  to  issue  through  the  nose  as  well  as 
the  mouth,  a  good  way  to  test  their  presence  in  one's 


THE   MECHANISM   OF   SPEECH  11 

speech  is  to  hold  the  nostrils  shut  while  pronouncing  the 
vowels.  If  one  finds  that  one's  vowels  are  the  same, 
whether  one  holds  the  nostrils  shut  or  does  not,  there 
can  be  no  nasalization  in  the  sounds.  But  if  one  finds 
that  one  produces  a  different  vowel  sound  when  one  holds 
the  nostrils  shut  from  that  which  is  produced  when  one 
does  not,  this  means  that  the  vowels  are  nasalized,  the 
peculiar  quality  of  the  sounds  in  the  first  case  being  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  air  which  normally  escapes  through 
the  nose  in  pronouncing  a  nasal  vowel  is  obstructed 
artificially  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  on  the  nostrils. 
This  produces  the  peculiar  'twang'  described  in  the  next 
paragraph.  The  fault  of  nasalization  is  one  merely  of/ 
habit  and  can  be  corrected  by  practice.  It  is  most 
likely  to  occur  in  vowels  which  precede  or  follow  a  nasal 
consonant,  whether  [m],  [n]  or  [rj],  but  with  many  speakers 
it  is  heard  also  in  vowels  not  in  nasal  surroundings. 
Nasalization  of  vowels  is  so  general  in  American  speech 
that  it  often  passes  unnoticed,  and  is  often  present  in  the 
speech  of  persons  who  are  quite  unaware  of  the  fact 
and  who  can  be  made  to  realize  it  only  after  much  patient 
observation.  Some  speakers  who  do  not  ordinarily 
nasalize  vowels  are  inclined  to  do  so  when  they  are  tired. 

18.  Another  kind  of  faulty  nasal  speech  is  sometimes 
heard  in  speakers  who  pinch  together  the  walls  of  the 
nose  at  its  outlet,  raising  the  upper  lip  and  tightening  all 
the  muscles  of  that  region  of  the  face,  the  result  being 
a  peculiar  '  twang '  or  resonance  which  is  immediately 
corrected  by  relaxing  these  muscles  and  allowing  the 
breath  to  issue  freely  from  the  nose  in  pronouncing  nasal 
consonants,  and  in  the  case  of  vowels,  by  raising  the  velum 
so  that  the  air  does  not  enter  the  nasal  canals  at  all.    This 


12  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

kind  of  nasalization  is  less  common  than  that  described 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  though  it  is  marked  in  some 
types  of  American  dialect  speech. 

19.  The  'talking  through  the  nose'  of  a  person  with  a 
cold  in  the  head  is  not  truly  described  by  this  phrase, 
for  one  of  the  main  characteristics  of  this  supposed  talking 
through  the  nose  is  that  the  velum  and  the  nasal  passages 
being  inflamed  and  swollen,  the  nasal  channels  are  ob- 
structed mechanically,  and  the  escape  of  the  breath 
through  the  nose,  which  takes  place  when  the  velum  is 
lowered  in  pronouncing  a  nasal  consonant,  or  when  it 
relaxes  normally  after  the  pronunciation  of  other  conso- 
nants or  a  vowel,  is  prevented.  The  result  is  that  in- 
stead of  n  [n],  one  with  a  cold  will  pronounce  something 
like  [d],  and  for  m  will  pronounce  [b],  and  for  [rj]  will 
pronounce  [g],  as  in  [gud  'boidig]  for  good  morning;  [sprig, 
^edtl  sprig]  for  spring,  gentle  spring;  [q  koild  id  bai 
do:z]  for  a  cold  in  my  nose. 

20.  The  Lips.  The  form  of  the  lips  is  also  to  be  noted, 
especially  in  studying  vowel  sounds,  and  is  easily  ob- 
served. They  may  be  drawn  back  (wide  or  spread)  as 
they  are  in  pronouncing  the  vowel  of  he,  see,  tea,  etc.,  or 
they  may  be  rounded  (protruded  or  pouted)  as  they  are 
in  pronouncing  the  vowel  of  too,  do,  blue,  etc.  When 
they  are  neither  wide  nor  rounded,  but  are  in  the  normal 
position  of  rest,  as  in  the  first  vowel  of  father,  or  the  first 
vowel  of  about,  they  are  said  to  be  neutral.  Various 
stages  of  widening  are  to  be  observed  between  neutral 
position  and  the  extreme  wide  position  of  tea,  and  like- 
wise various  degrees  of  rounding  between  neutral  posi- 
tion and  the  extreme  rounding  of  too.  Even  a  slight 
shift  from  one  position  to  another  may  modify  the  quality 


THE   MECHANISM   OF   SPEECH  13 

of  a  vowel.  Many  speakers  tend  to  move  their  lips  very 
little,  and  almost  all  English  sounds  can  be  made  audibly, 
though  monotonously  and  not  clearly,  with  practically 
no  motion  of  the  lips.  A  clear  and  distinct  enunciation, 
however,  demands  an  active  muscular  control  of  the  lips. 


II 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SOUNDS 

21.  Voiced  Stops.  The  phonetic  symbols  for  the 
voiced  stops  are  [b],  [d],  [g].  The  first  of  these  is  a  voiced 
bilabial  stop,  as  in  beet  [biit],  baby  ['beibi],  bib  [bib]; 
the  second  is  a  voiced  point  alveolar  stop,  as  in  do  [dm], 
shady  ['Jeidi],  did  [did].  The  character  of  the  sound 
represented  by  [g]  varies  considerably  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  vowel  sounds  with  which  it  is  combined. 
With  a  back  vowel,  as  in  the  word  gong  [gon],  the  sound 
is  a  voiced  back  soft-palate  stop.  When  the  vocalic 
surrounding  is  front,  as  in  geese. [gi is],  fatigue  [fae'tiig], 
the  consonant  is  a  voiced  front  hard-palate  stop.  The 
shading  from  the  extreme  of  the  back  sound  to  the  ex- 
treme of  the  front  sound  is  gradual  in  differing  combi- 
nations. As  the  front  or  back  quality  of  this  sound  is 
dependent  upon  the  vowel  with  which  it  is  combined  and 
is  necessarily  determined  by  it,  in  the  interest  of  economy 
in  the  alphabet  one  symbol,  [g],  will  be  used  in  this  book 
for  all  shades  of  the  sound. 

22.  Voiceless  Stops.  The  phonetic  symbols  for  the 
voiceless  stops  are  [p],  [t],  [k].  They  are  the  voiceless 
equivalents  of  [b],  [d],  [g],  the  first  being  a  voiceless 
bilabial  stop,  as  in  pay  [pel],  pope  [poip];  the  second  a 
voiceless  point  alveolar  stop,  as  in  hit  [hit],  debtor 
['detdi].  As  with  [g],  the  character  of  the  sound  repre- 
sented by  [k]  is  determined  by  vocalic  surrounding.    In 

14 


DESCRIPTION   OF  SOUNDS  15 

call  [koil],  the  initial  consonant  is  a  voiceless  back  soft- 
palate  stop,  but  in  keel  [kill]  it  is  a  voiceless  front  hard- 
palate  stop. 

23.  Fricative  Continuants.  The  term  'fricative  con- 
tinuants' designates  those  consonants  which  produce  an 
acoustic  effect  of  whistling,  hissing,  puffing,  'rolling/  or 
merely  'rough  breathing.'  They  are  of  several  varieties 
and  must  be  described  separately. 

24.  [h]  represents  the  voiceless  glottal  fricative  and 
the  voiceless  front  fricative.  As  a  voiceless  glottal 
fricative,  [h]  is  produced  with  the  tongue  lying  neutral 
on  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  as  it  does  in  normal  breathing, 
but  with  the  glottis  so  narrowed  by  a  partial  closure  of 
the  vocal  chords  that  the  air  in  passing  between  them 
causes  an  audible  friction.  If  the  vocal  chords  were  drawn 
close  together  and  the  glottis  quite  closed,  the  air  forcing 
its  way  through  would  set  the  chords  vibrating  and  thus 
produce  a  vowel  sound.  Thus  in  the  exclamation  Ha! 
[ha:],  the  only  change  which  takes  place  in  the  transition 
from  the  consonant  to  the  vowel  is  a  change  at  the  glottis, 
which  changes  from  half -closed  in  [h]  to  closed  in  [a:]. 
When  [h]  precedes  a  vowel  the  formation  of  which  re- 
quires a  departure  of  the  tongue  from  that  position  of 
almost  complete  rest  which  it  occupies  in  [a],  the  tongue 
position  is  assumed  for  the  vowel  even  while  the  conso- 
nant is  being  pronounced,  as  in  hat  [hset].  And  in  general 
one  may  say  that  there  are  as  many  varieties  of  [h]  as 
there  are  varieties  of  vowels  before  which  it  may  stand. 
Before  the  high  vowels,  however,  the  glottal  friction 
tends  to  be  replaced  by  a  friction  made  in  the  mouth, 
and  [h]  standing  before  a  strongly  stressed  [ii],  as  in  heed 
[hi id],   becomes  a  voiceless  front  fricative,   formed  by 


16  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

pressing  the  front  of  the  tongue  so  hard  against  the  palate 
that  the  air  in  escaping  produces  a  consonantal  noise. 
The  main  differences  between  [ii]  and  [h]  in  heed  are 
that  in  the  consonant  the  tongue  is  pressed  closer  to  the 
palate,  therefore  forms  more  of  an  obstruction  to  the  cur- 
rent of  air,  and  that  the  consonant  is  voiceless,  the  vowel 
voiced.  The  voiceless  front  fricative  is  still  more  un- 
mistakeably  heard  in  words  like  hue,  hew,  Hugh  [hju:], 
huge  [h]u:d3],  humor  ['hjuimaj].  It  is  both  unnecessary 
and  impracticable  to  record  all  shades  of  [h],  and  the  one 
symbol  will  be  here  used  to  cover  all  varieties  of  the  sound. 

25.  [j]  represents  the  voiced  front  fricative,  formed 
with  the  front  of  the  tongue  raised  close  to  the  hard-palate, 
the  sound  made  by  the  breath  escaping  through  the  nar- 
row opening  being  accompanied  by  vibration  of  the  vocal 
chords.  Before  a  back  vowel,  as  in  yawl  [joil],  the  [j]  is 
formed  slightly  farther  back  than  it  is  before  a  front 
vowel,  as  in  yield  [jiild],  but  the  difference  is  not  great. 
This  sound  is  not  strongly  consonantal  in  English.  The 
tongue  position  for  it  is  almost  the  same  as  for  [i],  and 
this  vowel  slightly  raised  and  intensified  passes  over  into 
[j].  It  is  the  first  element  in  the  so-called  'long  u' 
sound,  as  in  music  ['mjurzik],  pure  [pjuu],  etc.  It  is 
commonly  represented  in  the  ordinary  spelling  by  y. 

26.  [m]  may  be  described  as  a  voiceless,  back,  lip- 
rounded  fricative.  The  tongue  is  raised  at  the  back, 
the  lips  are  rounded  so  as  to  reduce  the  opening  of  the 
mouth,  thus  causing  a  friction  that  produces  a  slight 
whistling  sound.  Its  corresponding  voiced  form  is  [w], 
though  [m]  is  slightly  more  whistling  than  [w],  the  lips 
being  more  pursed  and  the  breath  expelled  more  ener- 
getically.    The  usual  spelling  for  [ai]  is  wh,  as  in  whit 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  19 

narrow  stream  over  the  tongue  and  between  the  teeth. 
It  may  be  described,  therefore,  as  a  voiceless,  blade- 
alveolar  point  post-dental  fricative.  It  appears  in  words 
like  sin  [sin],  sieve  [siv],  cell  [sel],  psalm  [sa:m],  receive 
[ri'siiv],  fancy  ['faensi]. 

34.  The  difference  between  normal  [s]  and  a  sharp, 
hissing  sound  sometimes  heard  for  s  is  that  in  the  latter 
the  teeth  are  tightly  closed,  the  tongue  tense,  and  the 
breath  sent  forth  with  greater  force  than  it  is  in  [s].  In 
cultivated  speech,  [s]  is  a  gentle  rather  than  an  energetic 
sound. 

35.  [z]  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  [s],  with  the 
addition  of  voicing.  The  tongue  may  be  very  slightly 
lower  and  more  relaxed  in  pronouncing  [z]  than  it  is  in 
pronouncing  [s].  The  sound  is  commonly  written  as 
z  or  s,  as  in  zinc  [zirjk],  zealous  ['zelas],  dizzy  ['dizi],  his 
[hiz],  beds  [bedz],  music  ['mjuizik]. 

36.  When  [z]  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  word,  the  sound  is 
really  composed  of  two  parts.  The  main  part  is  the 
voiced  continuant  represented  by  the  symbol  [z],  but  at 
its  conclusion  the  sound  changes  from  voiced  to  voiceless, 
from  [z]  to  [s].  In  their  treatment  of  [z],  some  speakers, 
usually  those  of  foreign  tradition,  have  a  very  '  buzzing ' 
kind  of  pronunciation,  due  to  the  fact  that  their  final 
[z]  is  pronounced  voiced  throughout.  This  makes  the 
sound  seem  unusually  long,  though  its  peculiarity  lies 
not  in  its  length,  but  in  the  lack  of  the  voiceless  ending 
which  is  present  in  standard  speech. 

37.  [$],  as  in  ship  [$ip],  wish  [wi$],  chip  [t$ip],  shawl 
[Soil],  bush  [bu$],  mission  ['mi$n],  ['mi$an],  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  voiceless,  blade-dental  point-alveolar  frica- 


20  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

tive.  The  blade  of  the  tongue  presses  against  the  sides 
of  the  middle  upper  teeth,  closing  the  openings  there,  the 
point  almost  touches  the  upper  gums,  the  teeth  are  closed, 
and  the  breath  issues  along  the  channel  between  the 
tongue  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  through  the  openings 
between  the  upper  front  teeth.  The  channel  through 
which  the  breath  issues  is  broader  than  it  is  in  pronounc- 
ing [s].  The  sound  is  represented  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways  in  conventional  spelling,  see  §  327. 

38.  [3],  as  in  pleasure  ['ple39i],  decision  [di's^n],  judge 
[d3Ad3J,  is  the  voiced  equivalent  of  [$].  It  has  no  letter 
of  its  own  in  the  conventional  alphabet  and  is  indicated 
in  spelling  in  various  ways,  see  §§  328  ff. 

39.  [r]  is  produced  by  raising  the  body  of  the  tongue 
so  that  the  sides  of  it  press  against  the  upper  teeth,  tilt- 
ing the  point  of  the  tongue  so  that  it  just  barely  touches 
the  bony  ridge  of  the  gums,  and  allowing  the  breath  to 
escape  with  a  distinctly  audible  friction  over  the  point  of 
the  tongue  and  between  the  teeth,  which  are  slightly 
open.  It  may  be  described,  therefore,  as  an  alveolar  r, 
with  reference  to  the  position  of  the  tongue.  The  vocal 
chords  are  in  vibration  and  the  lips  are  slightly  drawn 
back.  The  breath  escapes  with  considerable  force  be- 
tween the  up-tilted  point  of  the  tongue  and  the  alveoli, 
and  it  is  here  that  the  consonantal  friction  in  [r]  is  pro- 
duced, not  as  the  air  passes  between  the  teeth.  The 
tongue  positions  for  [r]  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
for  BL  feL  DUt  m  M  the  teeth  are  open,  in  [$],  [3]  the 
upper  and  lower  teeth  are  generally  in  close  contact. 

40.  This  is  the  sound  commonly  heard  in  American 
speech  for  r  initially,  as  in  red  [red],  between  vowels,  as 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  21 

in  very  [Veri],  and  after  consonants,  as  in  dress  [dres]. 
''  Before  proceeding  further  with  the  consideration  of 
various  other  kinds  of  r,  the  student  is  advised  to  observe 
extensively  the  occurrence  of  [r]  in  the  three  positions 
just  mentioned  in  different  words,  and  to  study  the 
sound  itself  so  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  consonantal 
from  the  vocalic  element  in  it.  A  voiceless  r,  which  is 
merely  frictional,  should  be  compared  with  the  voiced 
fricative  [r],  as  for  example  the  tr  of  tread  pronounced 
separately  without  voicing  as  compared  with  red,  read 
(preterite  of  the  verb),  pronounced  [red]  with  voicing. 

41.  A  trilled  or  rolled  r,  though  not  very  common  in 
American  speech,  is  sometimes  heard,  especially  for  r 
between  vowels,  as  in  very,  hurry,  etc.  It  is  commonly 
cultivated  in  stage  pronunciation  on  the  ground  that  it 
carries  better  than  the  fricative  r.  It  is  also  cultivated 
by  telephone  operators  in  the  pronunciation  of  three.  It 
is  formed  by  causing  the  point  of  the  tongue  to  tap  or 
vibrate  against  the  gums,  once  or  more,  and  in  highly- 
developed  forms  of  trilled  r,  a  considerable  number  of 
times.  This  sound  is  so  rare  in  American  speech  that 
it  has  not  seemed  necessary  to  provide  a  special  symbol 
for  it.    It  may  be  regarded  as  a  variant  form  of  [r]. 

42.  [j]  is  also  a  voiced  sound,  but  the  friction  accom- 
panying the  vocalic  element  is  so  slight  that  one  might 
hesitate  to  group  it  with  the  fricatives,  or  with  the  con- 
sonants at  all.  Its  orthographic  representation,  however, 
is  r,  and  it  is  commonly  thought  of  as  being  a  variety  of 
this  sound. 

In  pronouncing  [i]  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  not  tilted 
as  high  as  in  [r],  but  if  it  were  permitted  to  touch  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  which  it  does  not  do,  it  would  strike 


22  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

the  region  just  back  of  the  upper  teeth  and  in  front  of  the 
place  where  the  concavity  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  begins. 
It  is  commonly  heard  in  American  speech  before  con- 
sonants and  finally,  as  in  part  [pant],  hard  [hand],  heard 
[hajd],  cord  [kojd],  fir,  fur  [fsj],  demur  [di'maj],  car  [kau], 
dinner  ['dmai],  color  ['kAlai],  never  ['nevaa],  etc.  There 
is  less  friction  in  the  pronunciation  of  [j]  than  of  [r],  the 
space  between  the  tongue  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  be- 
ing greater,  and  some  phoneticians  do  not  recognize  any 
consonantal  value  for  orthographic  r  before  consonants 
and  finally.  It  is  true  that  [j]  is  regularly  omitted  by 
some  speakers,  especially  in  the  East  and  South  in  Amer- 
ica, when  it  is  final  or  stands  before  another  consonant, 
the  difference  between  taw  and  tore,  pot  and  part,  so  far 
as  there  is  one  with  such  speakers,  being  altogether  a 
difference  of  vowel  quality  or  length.  In  unstressed 
position,  as  in  never,  the  word  ends,  in  this  manner  of 
speech,  with  the  vowel  [a],  as  in  ['neva].  A  word  like 
part  consists,  in  this  pronunciation,  of  only  three  ele- 
ments, [p],  [a:]  and  [t],  giving  [part].  But  in  all  regions  of 
the  United  States,  especially  away  from  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, an  orthographic  r  commonly  has  phonetic  value 
before  consonants  and  when  final.  Whether  one  calls 
this  sound  which  is  heard  a  consonant  or  not  is  of  little 
importance,  provided  the  existence  and  quality  of  the 
sound  itself  are  recognized.  Its  presence  can  be  easily 
demonstrated  by  observing  the  tongue  positions  in  pro- 
nouncing a  word  like  part.  This  word,  in  American 
pronunciation  which  is  not  typically  Eastern,  contains 
four  elements,  the  first  and  last  being  stop  consonants, 
the  second  and  third  resulting  from  a  shifting  of  the 
tongue  from  mid  to  high  position  accompanied  by  curving 
or  tilting  of  the  point.     In  never,  when  the  word  ends 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  23 

only  in  a  vowel,  as  in  Eastern  American  pronunciation, 
the  tongue  position  at  the  conclusion  of  the  word  is  that 
of  [a],  that  is  mid  position,  with  the  point  of  the  tongue 
touching  or  on  a  level  with  the  lower  front  teeth.  With 
those,  however,  who  are  said  to  pronounce  their  r's,  the 
word  ends  with  the  tongue  in  high  position  and  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  on  a  level  with  the  roots  of  the  upper  teeth, 
giving  ['nevai].  The  difference  between  [r]  and  [j]  may- 
be tested  by  pronouncing  the  word  never  by  itself,  and 
then  by  letting  it  be  followed  by  rains,  as  in  it  never  rains. 
Of  course  if  one  has  no  final  r,  this  would  be  simply  [it 
'neva  reinz].  But  if  one  pronounces  final  r's,  the  final 
consonant  of  never  cannot  simply  be  carried  over,  like 
a  long  consonant  (see  §  83),  to  satisfy  the  demand  for 
the  initial  consonant  of  rains.  A  slight  modification  in 
articulation  is  observable  in  pronouncing  the  two  r's, 
which  is  adequately  represented,  however  it  be  named, 
by  the  two  phonetic  symbols  [j]  and  [r]. 

43.  Some  speakers,  especially  those  of  an  unenergetic 
habit  of  enunciation,  pronounce  [j]  for  [r]  even  in  the 
stressed  initial  position,  between  vowels,  and  after  con- 
sonants. The  pronunciation  of  [r]  for  [j],  that  is  a  strongly 
fricative  consonant  finally  and  before  other  consonants, 
as  in  fnevar],  [pairt],  etc.,  is  current  in  localities,  but  is 
not  general  in  standard  American  English. 

44.  Another  variety  of  r  is  heard,  especially  in  the 
North  Central  states  and  in  the  Middle  West,  which  is 
produced  by  bending  back  the  point  of  the  tongue  so  far 
that  if  it  actually  came  into  contact  with  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  it  would  strike  about  the  middle  of  the  hard- 
palate.  This  is  often  spoken  of  popularly  as  '  guttural  r,' 
though  it  would  be  truer  to  the  facts  to  call  it  a  hard- 


24  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

palate  r,  or  simply,  back  r.  Dialect  story  writers  usually 
represent  it  by  doubling  the  spelling,  as  in  corrn,  farrm, 
etc.  The  sound  is  often  so  marked  in  the  regions  in  which 
it  occurs  as  to  constitute  as  distinct  a  dialect  feature  as 
the  loss  of  [j]  before  consonants  and  finally  is  for  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  Speakers  who  have  this  back  [r]  are 
often  said  to  'roll  their  r's,'  though  as  a  matter  of  fact 
there  is  no  more  rolling  or  tapping  of  any  of  the  organs 
of  speech  in  pronouncing  this  r  than  there  is  in  pronounc- 
ing the  common  [r],  [i].  It  is,  however,  sometimes  pro- 
longed. Englishmen  and  Eastern  Americans  often  find 
this  sound  offensive.1 

45.  Lateral  Continuants.  Lateral  or  side  continuants 
are  represented  in  standard  English  only  by  1  [1],  as  in 
land  [land],  million  ['miljan],  all  [oil].  In  forming  this 
sound  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  placed  against  the  roots 
of  the  upper  teeth,  and  the  blade  against  the  gums,  which 
means  that  the  whole  body  of  the  tongue  lies  in  high 
position;  the  sides  of  the  tongue  are  free  and  the  air  issues 
through  the  narrow  channels  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth 
between  the  tongue  and  the  cheeks.  Normally  the  breath 
issues  through  both  sides  of  the  mouth,  but  the  sound 
may  be  produced  with  the  channel  open  only  on  one  side 
of  the  mouth.  Some  speakers  curve  back  the  point  of 
the  tongue  in  producing  this  sound,  so  that  the  point 

1  "She  [one  of  the  characters  in  a  Mississippi  Valley  story  who 
has  returned  home  after  having  been  '  cultured  up '  in  the  East]  did 
not  say  'charrmed'  like  an  alarm  clock  breaking  out.  She  did  not 
trundle  his  name  [Orson  Carver]  like  a  wheelbarrow.  Tudie  rolled 
the  'r'  on  his  eardrums  as  with  a  drumstick,  and  by  contrast  the 
sound  came  to  him  as:  'Misterr  Carrverr  comes  from  Harrvarrd. 
He  calls  it  Havvad.' "  —  From  "A  as  in  Father,"  by  Rupert  Hughes, 
In  a  Little  Town,  p.  364. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  25 

presses  against  the  front  part  of  the  hard-palate.  It 
makes  little  difference  in  acoustic  effect  whether  the 
breath  issues  through  only  one  or  through  both  sides  of 
the  mouth,  but  the  curving  back  of  the  point  of  the 
tongue  so  that  it  presses  against  the  hard-palate  produces 
a  variety  of  [1]  which  is  not  current  in  standard  speech. 
This  [1]  is  particularly  noticeable  when  it  is  preceded  by 
i  or  e,  as  in  hilly,  sell  and  similar  words,  the  curving  of 
the  tongue  for  1  affecting  also  the  vowels  and  producing 
pronunciations  somewhat  like  fhali],  [sal].  It  is  notice- 
able also  in  final  unstressed  syllables,  as  in  table,  moral, 
feeble,  people,  and  it  is  this  '  dark '  or  '  thick '  1,  as  it  may 
be  described,  which  writers  of  the  popular  dialect  some- 
times indicate  by  a  spelling  like  peepul  for  people.  It  is  a 
sound  to  be  avoided  in  cultivated  speech. 

46.  The  quality  of  [1]  in  standard  speech  is  not  quite 
the  same  when  it  stands  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  front 
sound,  as  in  lit  [lit],  ill  [il],  as  when  it  stands  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  a  back  sound,  as  in  law  [loi],  all  [oil].  The 
consonant  takes  color  to  some  extent  from  its  vocalic 
surrounding,  and  one  may  speak  of  a  front  and  a  back  [1]. 
The  difference  is  not  so  important,  however,  as  to  call 
for  separate  symbols  for  the  two  qualities.  The  sound 
is  usually  voiced,  though  it  may  sometimes  be  voiceless 
when  it  follows  a  voiceless  consonant  in  an  unstressed 
position,  as  in  hospital  ['haspitl],  ['hospitl]. 

47.  Because  of  its  vocalic  character,  [1]  sometimes 
constitutes  a  syllable  without  any  accompanying  vowel, 
as  in  middle  ['midl],  table  ['teibl],  battle  ['bsetl],  special 
['spe$l],  not  ['midol],  ['teibol],  ['bsetol],  ['spejol],  except  in 
a  very  formal  pronunciation. 


26  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

48.  Nasal  Continuants.  The  nasal  continuants  are 
[m],  [n],  [rj],  as  exemplified  respectively  in  may,  no,  song 
and  sing.  In  [m]  the  lips  are  closed,  the  tongue  is  quiescent, 
the  velum  lowered,  and  the  vocal  chords  in  vibration, 
producing  a  bilabial  nasal  voiced  continuant.  In  [n]  the 
stoppage  in  the  oral  passage  is  made  by  the  point  of 
the  tongue  pressing  against  the  upper  gums,  as  in  [d], 
the  velum  is  lowered,  allowing  the  air  to  pass  through  the 
nose,  and  the  vocal  chords  vibrate,  producing  a  point 
alveolar  nasal  voiced  continuant.  In  [rj],  as  in  song  [son], 
the  back  of  the  tongue  presses  against  the  forward  part 
of  the  soft-palate,  forming  a  back  soft-palate  voiced  nasal 
continuant.  In  sing  [sin]  the  front  of  the  tongue  presses 
against  the  hard-palate,  forming  a  front  hard-palate 
voiced  nasal  continuant.  The  grades  of  [rj]  correspond 
in  formation  to  [g],  with  the  addition  of  nasalization,  and 
as  in  the  case  of  [g],  [k],  [h],  only  one  symbol,  [n],  will  be 
used  for  all  shades  of  this  sound. 

49.  Compound  Consonants.  The  initial  and  final  con- 
sonants in  church,  judge,  call  for  no  special  symbols, 
since  ch  is  a  combination  of  [t]  and  [§],  and  may  therefore 
be  written  [t$],  and  j,  dg,  is  a  combination  of  [d]  and  [3], 
therefore  written  [d3].  It  should  be  observed  that  th  of 
the  ordinary  spelling  does  not  stand  for  a  double  con- 
sonant, but  for  a  sound  which  is  as  single  as  the  sound  of 
[s]  or  [f]  or  [z],  and  is  therefore  represented  by  a  simple 
symbol,  [t$]  or  [$].    See  §  8. 

50.  Vowels.  In  analyzing  the  vowels,  one  must  con- 
sider (1)  the  vertical  position  of  the  tongue,  whether  high, 
mid,  or  low;  (2)  the  region  of  the  tongue  which  is  most 
elevated  in  producing  the  several  vowels,  whether  the 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  27 

back,  the  front,  a  region  between  the  back  and  front,  the 
blade,  or  point,  though  the  point  is  rarely  of  significance 
in  vowel  formation;  (3)  the  degree  of  tenseness  of  the 
tongue,  whether  tense  (flexed) ,  or  slack  (relaxed) ;  (4)  the 
presence  or  lack  of  rounding  of  the  lips.  The  tongue  may 
lie  also  in  altogether  neutral  position,  with  no  part  par- 
ticularly active,  in  which  case  it  is  said  to  be  flat.  In 
describing  the  vowels  it  will  be  clearest  to  start  with  the 
high  front  vowels  as  the  ones  whose  method  of  formation 
is  most  easily  observed.  It  is  easy  to  analyze  the  vowels 
at  the  extremes,  like  [i:]  in  see  [si:],  which  is  the  highest 
and  farthest  front  of  all  vowels,  or  [o:]  in  saw  [so:],  which 
is  the  lowest  and  farthest  back  of  all  English  vowels.  As 
one  approaches  the  mid  and  front  positions  of  the  tongue, 
however,  the  analysis  becomes  increasingly  difficult,  and 
vowels  like  [e]  in  set  [set],  [e:]  in  there  [oeii],  [a]  in  hut 
[hAt],  [a:]  in  hurt  [hA:t],  with  the  r  silent,  [ad]  in  hat  [haet], 
[a:]  in  fast  [fa:st],  [a]  in  hot  [hat]  differ  from  each  other 
very  slightly  both  in  acoustic  effect  and  in  organic  method 
of  formation.  Even  slight  variations,  however,  are  often 
sufficient  to  draw  attention  to  differing  manners  of 
pronunciation. 

51.  [i].  High  blade  tense  wide.  The  body  of  the 
tongue  is  raised  as  high  as  it  can  be  in  the  production  of 
any  English  vowel  sound.  The  blade  and  front  are  pressed 
up  close  to  the  hard-palate,  the  muscles  of  the  tongue 
and  the  cheeks  are  tense  or  flexed,  and  the  sides  of  the 
mouth  are  drawn  back,  making  the  lips  wide.  The  point 
of  the  tongue  rests  against  the  backs  of  the  lower  teeth, 
as  it  does  in  almost  all  English  vowel  sounds.  The  mouth 
is  open  and  the  teeth  apart  about  the  space  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  tip  of  the  little  finger.    This  vowel  may  be 


28  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

short  or  half-long,  as  in  completely  [kom'plrtli],  deify 
['di-ivfai],  beatific  pbia'tifik],  seasonable  ['srzanabl],  or 
long,  as  in  seed  [si id],  see,  sea  [si:],  deceive  [di'siiv], 
seethe  [si:<5].  There  is  no  difference  in  quality  between 
[i]  and  [ii],  though  when  final,  [i:]  may  become  somewhat 
diphthongal,  see  §  76. 

52.  [i].  High  blade  slack  neutral.  This  vowel  is 
formed  exactly  like  [i],  except  that  the  muscles  of  the 
tongue  and  cheek  are  relaxed,  and  the  lips  are  allowed 
to  fall  into  neutral  position.  It  is  always  a  short  vowel, 
and  examples  of  it  are  found  in  sit  [sit],  city  ['siti],  finish 
['fmi$],  cylinder  ['silandai].  When  the  tongue  is  relaxed 
in  [i],  it  becomes  slightly  lower  than  it  is  in  pronouncing  [i]. 

In  the  two  syllables  of  a  word  like  city,  the  vowel  is 
represented  by  the  same  symbol,  though  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  [i]  in  unstressed  position  is  slightly  lower  than  [i]  in 
the  stressed  position.  Separate  symbols  might  be  used 
to  indicate  this,  or  one  may  speak  descriptively  of  [i]  in 
unstressed  syllables  as  being  more  open  or  lower  than  [i] 
in  stressed  syllables.  It  is  the  open  [i]  which  is  frequently 
heard  in  unstressed  initial  and  final  syllables,  as  in  decide 
[di'said],  begin  [bi'gin],  added  ['aedid],  basket  ['bseskrtj. 

The  vowel  [i]  also  appears  as  the  second  element  in 
diphthongs,  see  §§  71,  72,  75. 

53.  [e].  Mid  front  tense  wide.  The  whole  body  of 
the  tongue  falls  a  little  into  mid  position  in  passing  from 
the  two  preceding  sounds  to  this  sound.  The  point  of  the 
tongue  touches  the  bases  of  the  lower  teeth,  but  the  front 
is  arched  so  that  it  touches  the  sides  of  the  upper  teeth. 
The  tongue  and  cheek  muscles  are  flexed,  and  the  lips  are 
wide,  though  not  so  wide  as  in  [ii].  The  jaw  drops  a  little 
from  the  position  for  [i],  so  that  the  distance  between  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  29 

teeth  is  about  the  thickness  of  the  index  finger.  This 
vowel  may  be  short  or  half-long,  as  in  vacation  [ve- 
'ke-$9n],  patriot  ['pe-tmt],  fatally  ['fe-tali],  complacent 
[kam'ple-sent],  or  long,  as  in  raid  [reid],  fade  [feid],  place 
[pie is].  There  is  not  usually  any  difference  of  quality 
between  [e]  and  [ei],  though  the  latter  tends  to  become 
diphthongal  when  final  or  before  voiced  consonants  and 
under  full  stress,  see  §§  71,  207. 

54.  [e].  Mid  front  slack  neutral.  This  sound  occupies 
the  same  position  relative  to  [e]  that  [i]  does  to  [i].  It  is 
always  a  short  vowel  in  English,  as  in  set  [set],  said  [sed], 
medicine  ['medisin],  debt  [det],  perish  ['pen$],  ferry 
['fen],  guess  [ges],  led,  lead  (noun)  [led],  dense  [dens], 
trench  [trentj]. 

55.  [ei].  Mid  half-front  slack  neutral.  This  is  a  long 
vowel  which  occurs  only  before  r  in  stressed  syllables, 
and  is  represented  in  spelling  by  e,  ei,  ea,  a,  ai,  as  in 
there,  their  [tfeu],  pare,  pair,  pear  [pen],  fair,  fare  [feu], 
lair  [leu],  tear  (verb),  tare  [ten],  fairy  ['feiri],  Mary 
['me in],  chary  ['t$ein],  wary  ['we in].  The  vowel  is 
really  slightly  lower  than  [e]  and  is  formed  slightly  farther 
back,  that  is,  it  is  a  half-front  vowel,  but  it  is  represented 
here  by  the  same  symbol,  with  the  mark  of  length  added, 
to  avoid  increasing  the  number  of  symbols.  As  [e]  is 
never  long,  and  [ei]  occurs  only  in  the  position  before  r 
in  stressed  syllables,  no  confusion  between  the  two  sounds 
is  likely  to  occur.  Instead  of  pSen],  [pen],  etc.,  those 
speakers  who  do  not  pronounce  their  final  r's  have  [<5eia], 
[peia],  etc. 

56.  [se].  Low  front  slack  wide,  as  in  hat  [haet],  has 
[hsez],  fashion  ['fae$n],  laggard  ['lsegsid],  and  very  common 


30  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

in  American  pronunciation  in  words  like  path  [pae#],  fast 
[faest],  dance  [dsens],  etc.,  see  §§  124-130.  In  words  of 
this  latter  type,  the  vowel  sometimes  becomes  long,  but 
ordinarily  in  standard  pronunciation  it  is  short.  The 
tongue  is  in  slightly  lower  position  than  it  is  for  [ei],  but 
is  not  as  low  as  it  can  be  made  to  be.  To  be  more  exact, 
one  might  describe  its  position  as  low-mid.  The  point 
of  the  tongue  rests  against  the  lower  gums,  but  the  front 
is  raised  and  is  felt  lightly  touching  the  lower  edges  of 
the  upper  teeth.  The  muscles  of  the  tongue  are  relaxed, 
but  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  slightly  drawn  back, 
producing  a  very  slightly  wide  lip  formation.  The  mouth 
is  open  wide  enough  to  enable  one  to  insert  the  tips  of 
the  little  and  ring  fingers. 

57.  [a].  Low  half-back  slack  neutral,  as  in  father 
['faifiai],  palm  [pa:m],  and,  in  the  pronunciation  of  some 
Americans,  fast  [faist],  dance  [damts],  [dams],  calf  [kaif], 
etc.  In  these  words  the  vowel  is  long,  but  the  short 
vowel,  with  a  difference  only  in  quantity  from  the  long, 
is  commonly  heard  in  America  in  words  of  the  type  of 
hot  [hat],  not  [nat],  pod  [pad],  stop  [stap],  etc.  The 
tongue  is  low  in  the  mouth,  though  not  quite  so  low  as  in 
[oi],  and  the  tip  touches  the  lower  gums.  The  part  of 
the  tongue  which  is  raised  is  back,  but  not  so  far  back  as 
in  sounds  like  [o],  [o],  [oi],  with  which  [a]  should  be 
compared.  It  lies  between  the  back  and  front  surfaces 
of  the  tongue,  but  a  little  closer  to  back  than  to  front 
and  is  therefore  described  as  half-back.  The  tongue 
muscles  are  relaxed,  and  the  lips  are  at  rest  or  neutral. 
The  space  between  the  teeth  is  sufficiently  wide  to  enable 
one  to  insert  the  index  and  middle  fingers.  The  teeth  are 
farther  apart  and  the  mouth  more  open  in  pronouncing 


DESCRIPTION   OF  SOUNDS  31 

this  vowel  than  they  are  in  uttering  any  other  English 
vowel. 

58.  [a].  Low  half-front  slack  slightly  wide.  This 
sound  is  widely  current,  especially  in  artificial  speech  in 
America,  as  a  compromise  vowel  between  [a:]  and  [ae]  in 
words  of  the  type  of  fast,  calf,  dance,  grass,  etc.,  which 
are  pronounced  as  [faist],  [kaif],  [damts],  [dams],  [grais], 
or  [fsest],  [ksef],  [dsents],  [dsens],  [graes],  or  [faist],  [kaif], 
[damts],  [dams],  [grais],  etc.  In  these  and  similar  words 
the  vowel  is  commonly  long.  As  a  short  vowel  the  sound 
occurs  only  as  the  first  element  in  the  diphthong  [ai],  see 
§§  72,  209.  The  tongue  position  is  the  same  as  for  [a], 
except  that  the  part  which  is  elevated  is  slightly  more 
forward  than  for  [a] ;  it  is  not  a  front  sound,  but  is  nearer 
to  front  than  back  position  and  is  therefore  described  as 
half-front.  The  lips  are  slightly  retracted  or  widened, 
and  with  some  speakers,  especially  those  who  use  the 
sound  consciously,  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  and  cheek 
are  likely  to  be  somewhat  tense.  The  sound  has  acquired 
unusual  importance  in  the  discussion  of  American  usage 
because  it  is  so  often  cultivated  as  an  artificial  refinement 
in  certain  words  which  in  natural,  unconscious  use  have 
[a:]  or  [se]. 

59.  [u].  High  back  tense  rounded,  as  in  mood  [muid], 
tube  [tjuib],  juice  [d3u:s],  where  it  is  long,  or  musician 
[mju'zi$n],  ludicrous  ['ludikras],  where  it  is  short  or  half- 
long.  There  is  no  difference  in  quality  between  the  long 
and  the  short  vowel,  though  the  long  vowel  sometimes 
tends  to  become  diphthongal,  see  §  76.  The  tongue  is 
raised  high,  with  the  back  part  of  it  touching  the  soft- 
palate.  From  the  back  forward  the  tongue  slopes  down 
until  the  point  touches  the  lower  gums.    The  muscles  of 


32  STANDAKD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

the  tongue  are  moderately  tense.  The  lips  are  protruded 
and  distinctly  pouted  or  rounded.  The  teeth  are  about 
as  far  apart  as  they  are  for  [i],  perhaps  a  little  farther. 

60.  [u].  High  back  slack  rounded,  as  in  bush  [bu§], 
full  [ful],  book  [buk],  good  [gud].  The  positions  of  the 
vocal  organs  are  the  same  as  for  [u]  except  that  the  muscles 
are  relaxed  and  the  vowel  is  therefore  slightly  lower.  It 
is  normally  only  a  short  vowel,  though  some  speakers 
might  pronounce  it  long  before  [j],  in  words  like  poor, 
moor,  lure,  etc. 

61.  [o].  Mid  back  tense  rounded,  as  in  notable  ['no-tobl], 
notation  [no'te*$on],  devotional  [di'vo-$onl],  where  it  is 
short  or  half -long,  or  note  [no:t],  spoke  [spoik],  rode, 
road  [roid],  where  it  is  long.  There  is  commonly  little 
difference  in  quality  between'  [o]  and  [o:]  in  American 
speech,  though  [oi]  tends  to  become  diphthongal  under 
certain  conditions,  see  §  74.  The  tongue  is  in  mid  po- 
sition in  producing  this  vowel,  the  back  elevated  towards 
the  soft-palate,  the  forward  surface  sloping  down  until 
the  point  touches  the  lower  gums.  The  muscles  of  the 
tongue  are  moderately  tense,  and  the  lips  are  rounded 
slightly  less  than  for  [u].  This  sound  should  be  compared 
with  [a],  [ai]. 

62.  [oj.  Mid  back  slack  rounded,  as  in  authority 
[o'0orrti],  long  [Ion],  song  [son],  and  in  many  words  in 
which  usage  varies  between  [o]  and  [a],  as  in  positive 
['pozrtiv]  or  ['pazitiv],  hot  [hot]  or  [hat],  dog  [dog]  or 
[dag],  etc.  It  is  normally  a  short  vowel  in  standard  pro- 
nunciation, and  its  method  of  formation  is  the  same  as 
that  of  [o]  except  that  the  sound  is  slack,  therefore 
slightly  lower  than  [o].  The  lips  are  also  slightly  less 
rounded. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  33 

63.  [01].  Low  back  tense  rounded,  as  in  law  [hi],  awe 
[oi],  thought  [0o  it],  caught  [ksit].  The  tongue  is  in  the 
lowest  possible  position,  the  extreme  back  of  it  is  elevated 
towards  the  soft-palate,  the  point  touches  the  floor  of 
the  mouth  beneath  the  lower  gums,  and  the  muscles  of 
the  tongue  are  somewhat  tense.  The  lips  are  rounded, 
and  the  teeth  far  enough  apart  to  enable  one  to  insert  the 
thickness  of  the  thumb  between  them.  This  vowel  is 
normally  only  a  long  vowel  and  occurs  only  in  stressed 
syllables.  In  dialect  pronunciation  it  appears  in  some 
words  which  in  standard  speech  have  [3]  or  [a],  as  in  dog 
[dsig],  God  [gosd],  long  [bin],  frost  [froist],  see  §  111. 

Though  the  same  symbol  is  used  for  [3]  and  [oi],  the 
organic  difference  between  the  two  vowels  should  not 
be  overlooked.  The  vowel  [3]  is  not  merely  a  shortened 
[01],  but  acoustically  and  organically  it  is  a  recognizably 
different  vowel.  As  the  difference  in  quantity  implies 
also  this  difference  in  quality,  it  has  not  seemed  necessary 
to  provide  [31]  with  a  separate  symbol. 

64.  [a].  Mid  half-back  slack  slightly  wide,  as  in  cut 
[kAt],  up  [Ap],  butter  ['bAtai],  hurry  fhAri],  son,  sun 
[sAn],  some  [sAm].  This  sound  should  be  compared  with 
[3]  the  tongue  positions  for  which  are  the  same,  except 
that  in  [a]  the  part  of  the  tongue  elevated  lies  a  little  in 
front  of  back  position,  best  described  as  half-back.  The 
lips  also  instead  of  being  rounded  are  slightly  wide. 
Compare  this  sound  likewise  with  [ei].  The  vowel  [a]  is 
normally  only  a  short  vowel. 

65.  [ai].  Mid  half-back  tense  slightly  wide.  This  vowel 
occurs  only  as  a  long  vowel,  and  only  before  r  followed  by 
a  consonant,  or  before  r  final,  according  to  the  ordinary 
spelling,  in  the  speech  of  those  persons  who  pronounce 


34  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

no  r  in  these  combinations.  Examples  would  be:  curse 
[kAis],  hurt  [hAit],  fur,  fir  [fAi],  church  [t$Ait$],  dirt  [dAit], 
person  ['pAison],  The  sound  should  be  clearly  distin- 
guished from  [a].  It  is  much  more  tense  than  [a],  therefore 
appreciably  higher  and  more  front,  and  the  lips  are  slightly 
more  retracted.  The  point  of  the  tongue  touches  the 
lower  teeth.  The  mouth  is  open,  as  in  [a],  sufficiently 
wide  to  enable  one  to  insert  the  ring  finger  between  the 
teeth.  The  sound  should  also  be  distinguished  from  [a] 
and  [a],  both  of  which,  besides  being  different  in  quality, 
are  always  short. 

66.  [a].  Mid  flat  slack  neutral.  This  is  the  so-called 
obscure  vowel,  which  appears  only  as  a  short  sound  in 
unstressed  syllables,  as  in  about  [a'baut],  nation  ['nei$an], 
national  [rnae$anal].  The  method  of  formation  of  this 
sound  is  very  similar  to  that  of  [a],  the  main  difference 
being  that  in  [a]  the  tongue  is  in  low  position,  in  [a]  it  is 
in  mid  or  perhaps  low-mid  position.  The  tongue  lies 
almost  level  in  the  mouth  in  pronouncing  [a],  the  point 
touches  the  lower  teeth,  the  muscles  are  very  slack,  as 
they  naturally  would  be  in  an  unstressed  syllable,  and 
the  lips  are  at  rest  in  neutral  position.  The  positions  of 
the  organs  of  speech  are  very  much  as  they  are  in  normal 
breathing.  Vowels  which  ordinarily  have  distinct  values 
when  they  stand  in  stressed  position  may  all  of  them 
become  this  vowel  in  the  unstressed  position  (see  §  94), 
especially  in  popular  speech,  as  in  the  popular  pronun- 
ciations fellow  f'fela],  yellow  ['jela],  piano  [pi'aena]  for 
standard  ['felo],  ['jelo],  [pi'aeno]. 

67.  [«].  Mid  inverted  tense  neutral.  This  vowel  oc- 
curs normally  only  as  a  short  sound,  before  r  [i]  followed 
by  a  consonant  or  before  r  [j]  final,  in  the  speech  of  those 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  35 

Americans  who  sound  this  [j].  It  is  considerably  tenser 
than  [a],  therefore  slightly  higher  and  the  middle  parts  of 
the  tongue  are  somewhat  more  elevated.  But  the  most 
characteristic  quality  of  this  vowel  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  point  of  the  tongue  is  lifted  up  and  slightly  inverted 
so  that  it  is  directed  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  In 
other  words,  the  tongue  position  for  [j]  is  practically 
taken  even  while  the  vowel  is  being  pronounced.  This  is 
the  only  vowel  in  English  in  the  formation  of  which  the 
point  of  the  tongue  rises  above  the  level  of  the  lower 
teeth,  and  the  only  one  in  which  the  tongue  is  hollowed  or 
curved  up.  For  this  reason  it  is  called  an  inverted  vowel. 
The  lips  are  neutral,  and  the  teeth,  as  in  [a],  are  open  wide 
enough  to  enable  one  to  insert  the  ring  finger.  Examples 
of  the  occurrence  of  this  sound  are  found  in  words  like 
clerk  [klajk],  mercy  ['maasi],  pert  [pa.it],  dirt  [dait],  shirt 
[Sait],  hurt  [hait],  spurt  [spait],  dearth  [daj0],  worth 
[waj0],  fur,  fir  [faj],  her  [haj],  sir  [sai],  murmur  ['maimai], 
infer  [in'fai],  purr  [pai],  slur  [slai],  stir  [staj]. 

68.  In  unstressed  final  syllables,  the  r  [j]  may  be  syllabic 
or  may  be  preceded  by  [a]  as  in  winter  ['winti]  or  ['wmtai], 
supper  ['sApj]  or  ['sApai],  stronger  ['stronga]  or  ['strorjgai]. 
The  second  of  these  would  be  rather  marked  formal 
pronunciations. 

69.  In  segregating  this  sound  from  surrounding  sounds 
in  words,  the  student  is  advised  to  begin  with  the  simplest 
possible  combination,  as  in  err  [aj].  The  double  spelling 
rr  in  this  word  signifies  nothing,  as  the  word  has  phoneti- 
cally only  one  consonant.  The  vowel  preceding  the  con- 
sonant should  be  distinguished  first  from  the  vowel  of  a 
word  like  ere  [e:i],  which  has  the  same  vowel  as  there, 
pair,  bear,  etc.    Those  speakers  who  do  not  sound  [j]  in 


36  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

err  have  only  a  simple  vowel  in  this  word,  commonly  the 
vowel  [a:].  Those  speakers  who  do  pronounce  the  final 
consonant  have  a  short  [9]  followed  by  the  slight  frictional 
r  which  is  designated  by  [j].  It  may  be  helpful  to  prac- 
tice pronouncing  err  with  an  alveolar  r  [r],  or  a  trilled  or 
back  r,  proceeding  then  to  the  slighter  consonantal  sound 
in  [9j].  In  passing  from  [9]  to  [j]  the  only  change  in  the 
organs  of  speech  is  the  increased  raising  or  tilting  of  the 
point  of  the  tongue  which  brings  it  into  a  position  close 
to  the  roots  of  the  upper  teeth  and  which  causes  the  slight 
frictional  element  in  [1].  Next  one  may  proceed  to  the 
analysis  of  complexer  groups  of  sounds,  like  fir,  fur  [f9j], 
person  ['psisan],  heard  [h9jd],  dirt  [d9it],  hurt  [h9.1t], 
which  should  be  clearly  distinguished  both  from  [fgr], 
[rp9rs9n],  [h9rd],  [d9rt],  [h9rt],  and  from  [fAi],  ['pAisan], 
[hAid],  [dAit],  [hAit].  The  organic  differences  between 
[a],  [ai],  [9],  [9]  are  at  first  not  easy  to  analyze,  but  the 
acoustic  distinctions  intended  by  the  several  symbols  are 
apparent  to  a  sensitive  ear  and  often  constitute  quite 
noticeable  differences  in  pronunciation. 

70.  Diphthongs.  A  diphthong  is  a  vowel  combination 
which  starts  with  one  tongue  position  and  glides  to 
another  before  the  sound  closes.  There  is  no  articulatory 
break  between  the  two  elements  of  a  diphthong,  as  there 
is,  for  example,  when  the  first  two  vowels  of  a  word  like 
pre-eminent  [pri'em9n9nt]  are  pronounced.  A  typical 
diphthong  would  be  the  vowel  of  ride  [raid].  Diphthongs 
are  sometimes  written  in  the  conventional  spelling  with 
two  letters,  as  in  house  [haus],  boil  [boil],  but  sometimes 
also  they  are  written  with  a  single  vowel. 

In  general  long  vowels  tend  to  become  diphthongal. 
Some  of  the  long  vowels,  however,  as  [aij,  fe:],  are  very 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  37 

rarely  diphthongal.  The  vowel  [oi]  sometimes  becomes 
[oia],  the  glide  [o]  being  caused  by  the  instinctive  raising 
of  the  tongue  from  the  very  low  position  of  [o:]  to  the 
more  normal  mid  position  of  [a].  With  inversion  of  the 
point  of  the  tongue,  this  [a]  becomes  [j],  see  §  305.  The 
commonest  diphthongs  in  American  English  are  [ei],  [ai], 
[au],  [ou],  [oij. 

71.  [ei].  This  diphthong  may  be  described  as  a 
diphthongal  variant  of  [ex].  In  a  word  like  fate  [feit], 
there  is  generally  no  diphthongal  quality  present  in  the 
American  pronunciation  of  the  vowel.  It  is  a  simple  long 
vowel.  When  fully  stressed  before  voiced  consonants 
and  at  the  end  of  stressed  syllables,  however,  it  tends  to 
become  more  or  less  markedly  diphthongal,  as  in  fade 
[feid],  pay  [pel],  strayed  [streid]  as  compared  with  straight 
[streit]. 

72.  [ai].  This  is  the  common  sound  of  words  like  ride 
[raid],  tie  [tai],  sigh  [sai],  sight,  site,  cite  [salt],  buy,  by 
[bai]. 

73.  [au].  An  obvious  diphthong,  which  appears  in 
words  like  house  [haus],  cow  [kau],  trowel  ['traual], 
frown  [fraun]. 

74.  [ou].  Like  [ei],  this  sound  may  be  described  as 
the  diphthongal  quality  of  a  long  vowel,  in  this  case  [oi]. 
In  words  like  note  [no it],  boat  [bo  it],  where  the  vowel 
stands  before  a  voiceless  consonant,  it  commonly  has  no 
diphthongal  value.  Before  voiced  consonants  and  finally, 
it  tends  to  become  more  or  less  markedly  diphthongal,  as 
in  rose  [rouz],  bowl  [boul],  road,  rode  [roud],  tow,  toe  [tou], 
no,  know  [nou],  though  [Sou].    But  see  §§  218-220. 


38  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

75.  [01].  This  is  the  clear  diphthong  of  words  like  boil 
[boil],  boy  [boi],  void  [void],  annoy  [o'noi],  coign,  coin 
[koin].  With  this  last  example  compare  coincidence 
[ko'msidons],  where  oi  is  of  course  not  diphthongal. 

76.  The  vowels  [i]  and  [u]  are  rarely  diphthongal,  even 
when  fully  stressed  and  long.  When  [i]  becomes  diph- 
thongal, it  starts  on  [i]  and  closes  with  [i],  as  in  sea  [sii]. 
Ordinarily,  however,  American  speakers  would  pronounce 
the  vowel  in  this  and  similar  words  merely  as  [iij,  making 
no  qualitative  but  only  a  quantitative  difference  between 
the  vowel  of  see,  sea  and  the  first  vowel  of  seasonable 
['sizonobl].  In  the  same  way  the  vowel  of  two,  too  may 
be  pronounced  as  a  diphthong,  composed  first  of  a  slack 
followed  by  a  tense  element,  that  is  [tuu],  but  it  is  more 
likely  to  be  heard  merely  as  [uij.  The  difference  between 
the  vowel  of  tooth  [tu:0]  and  the  first  vowel  of  tooth- 
someness  ['tu0somrnis]  is  only  one  of  quantity. 

77.  The  diphthongal  character  of  a  prolonged  [i]  and 
a  prolonged  [u]  may  best  be  observed  when  these  words 
are  under  an  exceptionally  heavy  stress.  For  example,  in 
I  didn't  say  key,  I  said  tea,  the  antithesis  calls  for  a 
phonetic  representation  as  follows:  [ai  didnt  se*  'kii:,  ai 
sed  'trii].  So  also  the  vowel  of  true  is  likely  to  be  notice- 
ably diphthongal  in  the  following  phrase,  It  may  be  inter- 
esting, but  is  it  true?  [it  me-  bi  'intonstirj,  bat  iz  it 
'truui?].  The  words  say  and  may  in  the  above  sentences 
are  only  slightly  stressed  and  the  vowel  is  short  or  half- 
long,  not  diphthongal. 

78.  [ju].  The  so-called  'long  u*  of  words  like  mute 
[mjuit]  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  diphthongal,  since  the 
sound  which  precedes  [u]  is  consonantal  and  not  vocalic. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  39 

It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  [j]  in  English  is 
never  a  strongly  consonantal  sound;  the  close  relation 
between  [i]  and  [j]  has  been  pointed  out  above,  see  §  25. 
One  may  occasionally  hear  this  sound  pronounced  as  [iu], 
but  in  standard  speech  its  form  is  [ju].  It  is  grouped 
here  with  the  diphthongs  merely  for  practical  convenience. 

79.  The  two  elements  of  a  diphthong  are  commonly 
not  equal  in  stress  or  length,  but  one  is  more  prominent 
than  the  other.  In  [ei],  [ou],  [au],  [oi]  the  first  element 
is  the  more  prominent,  in  [ii],  [uu],  [ju]  it  is  the  second, 
and  in  [ai]  it  is  mainly  the  second,  though  with  many 
speakers  the  two  elements  of  this  diphthong  are  about 
equal  in  stress  and  length. 

80.  Quantity.  As  the  term  is  used  in  phonetics,  the 
word  quantity  refers  primarily  to  duration,  not  to  the 
difference  of  quality  in  sounds.  Sounds  may  be  long  or 
short,  the  long  sound  being  indicated  by  the  sign  [:] 
placed  after  it.  When  it  is  necessary  to  indicate  a  degree 
between  long  and  short,  that  is  a  half-long,  which  implies 
of  course  that  one  is  uncertain  whether  the  sound  is  long 
or  short  and  that  it  may  be  either,  the  sign  [•]  is  used. 
When  not  marked  as  long  or  half-long,  sounds  are  to  be 
considered  short.  It  should  be  understood  that  the 
terms  long  and  short  are  used  not  to  designate  absolute 
quantity,  that  a  long  sound  is  not  always  so  many  seconds 
or  fractions  of  a  second  long.  The  vowel  of  awe  [oi]  is 
long,  but  so  also  is  the  vowel  of  awful  ['oifal],  though 
not  absolutely  so  long  as  the  vowel  of  awe.  The  length  of 
a  vowel  depends  very  much  upon  the  number  of  syllables 
in  the  word  containing  it,  the  position  of  the  word  in  con- 
text, and  also  upon  the  amount  of  stress  the  syllable  con- 


40  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

taining  the  vowel  receives.  Unstressed  vowels  are  very 
seldom  long.  Moreover,  all  vowels  are  appreciably  longer 
before  voiced  than  before  voiceless  consonants;  cf.  bead 
[biid]  and  beet,  beat  [biit],  feed  [fi:d]  and  feet,  feat  [fiit], 
league  [liig]  and  leek,  leak  [liik],  peas  [piiz]  and  peace 
[piis];  or  compare  loaf  with  loaves,  life  with  lives,  half 
with  the  verb  halve,  etc.  In  the  following  words  the 
vowels  are  all  short,  but  not  equally  short:  let  [let],  led 
[led];  debt  [det],  dead  [ded];  hit  [hit],  hid  [hid];  rot  [rat], 
rod  [rad];  hook  [huk],  hood  [hud],  etc. 

81.  In  a  prolonged  diphthong  it  is  the  first  element 
of  [ei],  [ou],  [au],  [01]  which  is  lengthened,  the  second 
element  in  [ii],  [uu],  [ju],  and  both  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions in  [ai].  Examples  of  some  of  these  prolonged 
diphthongs  may  be  observed  in  a  declamatory  pronun- 
ciation of  the  first  line  of  the  Star  Spangled  Banner, 
O  say,  can  you  see  by  the  dawn's  early  light  ['oiu  'sen, 
kaen  ju  'srii  bai  So  'doinz  9j1i  'lait].  Ordinarily,  however, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  indicate  the  length  of  the  elements 
of  a  diphthong,  except  [ju]. 

82.  Many  speakers  in  America  have  a  slow  and  unen- 
ergetic  manner  of  enunciation,  which  results  in  a  dragging 
or  'drawling'  of  the  vowel  sounds,  so  that  normally  short 
vowels  become  long  and  long  vowels  become  over-long. 
Thus  hat  [hset]  becomes  [hseit],  pitch  [pit$]  becomes  [pnt$], 
well  [wel]  becomes  [we:l],  etc.,  this  last  illustration  being 
one  of  the  conventional  marks  of  Brother  Jonathan's 
English  on  the  stage  and  in  fiction.  This  statement 
applies  to  diphthongs  as  well  as  simple  vowels.  The 
manner  of  speech  is  characteristic  of  provincial  and 
rustic,  not  cultivated  American  English. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  41 

83.  The  distinction  between  long  and  short  applies 
to  consonants  as  well  as  vowels.  Long  consonants  occur 
in  English  only  when  two  consonants  of  the  same  kind 
come  together  in  compound  words  or  in  close  syntactical 
phrases  with  a  main  and  secondary  stress.  Compare 
pen-knife  ['peni^arf]  with  penny  ['peni],  mad  dog  ['maedi^og] 
with  mattock  ['maetok],  lessee  ['lesivi]  with  dressy  [Mresi]. 
In  rapid  pronunciation  a  word  like  pen-knife  may  have 
only  a  short  consonant,  just  as  the  phrase  a  good  deal 
may  be  [Vgudi'iil]  or  [a  guMiil],  though  never  [a'gud 
'dill],  except  in  artificial  pronunciation.  Note  that  long 
consonants  are  not  double  consonants,  pronounced  with 
two  separate  articulations.  Spellings  such  as  occur,  add, 
egg,  etc.,  are  of  course  no  indication  that  the  consonants 
written  cc,  dd,  gg  are  long.  The  consonant  of  egg  [eg]  is 
short,  but  in  egg-glass  ['eg ibises]  it  is  long.  Stop  con- 
sonants are  made  long  by  assuming  the  stop  position  and 
holding  it  for  a  moment  before  the  explosion  is  allowed 
to  occur.  A  long  stop  consonant  cannot  be  called  a 
double  consonant  because  a  double  consonant  would 
call  for  two  distinct  explosions.  A  long  continuant  is 
merely  the  ordinary  continuant  prolonged. 

84.  Stress.  Syllables  are  stressed,  unstressed,  or  sec- 
ondarily stressed  (half  stressed).  Unstressed  syllables  are 
not  marked,  but  stress  is  indicated  by  the  acute  accent 
before  the  syllable  affected,  secondary  or  half  stress,  by 
the  grave  accent,  as  in  inkwell  ['irjkVel].  Stress  like 
length  is  to  be  understood  as  a  term  of  relative,  not 
absolute  significance.  In  a  group  of  words  like  A  black 
bird  is  not  necessarily  a  blackbird  [a  'blaek  'baid  iz  nat 
nesa'serili  o  'blaek^baid],  the  third  syllable  of  necessarily 
is  marked  as  a  stressed  syllable,  and  it  is  stressed  relative 


42  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

to  its  surroundings,  that  is,  it  is  the  stressed  syllable  of 
its  word,  though  not  so  strongly  stressed  as  the  second 
syllable  or  third  of  the  phrase  or  either  of  the  syllables 
of  the  last.  And  though  the  second  and  third  words  of 
thephrase  are  both  stressed,  they  are  not  equally  stressed, 
one  or  the  other  being  made  the  more  emphatic  according 
as  the  logic  of  the  phrase  appeals  to  the  speaker. 

85.  The  stressing  of  syllables  in  words  of  two  or  more 
syllables  is  fixed  with  considerable  exactness  by  conven- 
tion, but  the  stressing  of  words  in  the  word  group  varies 
with  circumstances,  logically  emphatic  words  usually 
receiving  relatively  heavy  stress.  Sometimes  the  conven- 
tional stress  of  words  is  altered  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
as  when  an  antithesis  is  made  prominent,  e.g.,  Thousands 
for  defense,  not  a  man  for  offense  ['flauzondz  foi  'diifens, 
nat  o  msen  for  'of ens];  or  in  a  very  emphatic  or  exclama- 
tory word,  e.g.,  delighted  ['chYlaitid],  absolutely  [sebso- 
'ljutli],  exactly  ['eg^zaektli],  exquisite  [eks'kwizit],  etc. 
Sometimes  in  the  word  group,  even  a  word  logically  very 
unimportant  is  stressed  for  emphasis,  especially  in  col- 
loquial style,  e.g.,  "What  did  he  say?"  "He  didn't  have 
anything  to  say"  [Wt  did  hi  'sei?  hi  'didnt  hsev  'eniflin 
'tu  xsei]. 

86.  The  second  element  of  compound  words,  so  long 
as  it  bears  a  fairly  clear  logical  content,  carries  a  secondary 
stress,  as  in  book-shelf  ['buk-^elf],  butter-knife  ['bAtoj- 
*naif],  etc.,  but  when  the  second  element  no  longer  has  a 
separate  logical  value,  it  loses  its  stress,  as  in  husband 
['hAzbond],  cupboard  ['kAbaid],  etc.  Sometimes  the 
two  elements  of  a  compound  are  pronounced  with  prac- 
tically equal  or  level  stress,  as  in  beef-steak  ['biif-'steik], 
ax-handle    ['aeks-'hsendl],    Broadway    ['broid-'wei],    etc., 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  43 

but  usually  such  words,  when  they  appear  in  context, 
carry  only  a  secondary  stress  on  the  second  element,  as  in 
beefsteak  and  potatoes  ['biiPsteik  n  pa'teitoz],  unless  a 
special  need  for  emphasizing  both  logical  elements  in  the 
compound  is  present. 

87.  Syllabic  accent  in  words  is  fixed  more  or  less  ex- 
actly by  convention,  and  especially  in  words  of  native 
origin,  little  variation  in  usage  occurs.  In  some  words  of 
Latin  origin,  however,  several  ways  of  stressing  the  same 
word  are  current.  In  dissyllables  compounded  of  a  prefix 
plus  a  root,  it  is  a  fairly  general  rule  that  verbs  stress 
the  root,  as  in  perfume  [paj'fjuim],  refuse  [n'fjuiz],  pro- 
ceed [pro'siid],  combine  [kam'bain],  protest  [pro'test], 
transfer  [traens'faj],  absent  [aeb'sent],  premise  [pri'maiz], 
annex  [ae'neks],  abstract  [seb'strsekt],  address  [ae'dres], 
etc.;  whereas  substantives  stress  the  prefix,  ['paifjum], 
['refjuz],  ['pro-sidz],  ['kambain],  ['pro-test],  ['trsensfaj], 
fsebsant],  ['premis],  spelled  premise  or  premiss,  ['aeneks], 
faebstrsekt],  ['aedres],  etc.  But  the  rule  is  not  infallible, 
and  some  noun  compounds  of  this  type  are  stressed 
sometimes  on  the  first  and  sometimes  on  the  second 
syllable,  e.g.,  address,  annex,  ally,  allies,  ralloy,  access, 
excess,  recess  (but  only  success  [sak'ses]).  Academic 
authority  sometimes  prescribes  a  single  pronunciation, 
e.g.,  [ae'lai],  [ae'laiz]  for  ally,  allies,  or  [n'ses]  for  recess, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  of  divided  practice  in  usage. 

88.  In  cement  a  distinction  was  formerly  made  between 
the  noun  ['semant]  and  the  verb  [si'ment],  but  now  both 
noun  and  verb  are  stressed  on  the  second  syllable.  The 
word  is  not  etymologically  a  compound  but  seems  to  have 
been  assimilated  in  feeling  to  verb  compounds, 


44  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

89.  Sometimes  stress  determines  meaning,  as  in  accent 
['aeksent],  'to  stress  or  emphasize  in  speech/  but  [aek'sent], 
Ho  emphasize  particularly  a  thought  or  distinction.' 
The  stressing  of  certain  words  also  may  change  with  their 
syntactical  position.  Thus  abject,  adult,  adverse,  excess, 
occult,  and  a  great  many  other  compounds  of  like  kind 
used  as  adjectives,  for  which  the  dictionaries  usually 
record  only  one  form,  with  stress  on  the  second  syllable, 
may  be  stressed  according  to  rule  when  the  adjective 
stands  in  absolute  position,  e.g.,  He  was  most  abject 
[aeb'dsekt]  in  his  behavior,  but  when  the  adjective  stands 
in  regular  adjective  position  before  the  modified  word, 
the  stress  is  likely  to  shift  to  the  first  syllable,  e.g.,  The 
most  abject  ['aebd3ekt]  creature  I  ever  saw.  Compare 
the  phrase  a  complex  argument  [a  'kampleks  'aigjumont] 
with  his  argument  was  very  complex  [hiz  'aigjumont  woz 
'veri  kam'pleks],  or  occult  sciences  ['akAlt  'saionsiz]  with 
in  the  regions  of  the  occult  [in  So  'riid3onz  ov  Si  a'kAlt]. 
In  instances  of  this  sort,  accent  seems  to  be  determined  by 
the  rhythm  of  the  phrase,  and  rhythm  undoubtedly  plays 
a  large  part  in  all  variabilities  of  stressing  in  English. 
The  statement  of  these  rhythmical  rules  would  be  very 
complex,  and  the  dictionaries,  being  under  the  necessity  of 
speaking  briefly  and  dogmatically,  do  not  give  a  faithful 
or  detailed  picture  of  usage  in  these  respects.  Those 
speakers  who  follow  the  dictionary  rules  as  to  stressing 
are  frequently  compelled  to  substitute  a  mechanical  rule 
in  place  of  a  natural  practice.  It  is  impossible  to  formu- 
late any  simple  practical  rules  of  certain  guidance  in  the 
stressing  of  these  variable  dissyllables  and  polysyllables 
in  English,  since  the  words  do  not  fall  into  clearly 
maintained  categories.  Under  the  circumstances,  the 
most  economical  and  practical  method  is  to  learn  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  45 

stressing    of    such   words    by   observing   and    following 
usage. 

90.  The  word  program,  programme,  is  pronounced 
['pro^graem],  though  a  popular  pronunciation  ['program] 
is  also  heard  and  seems  to  be  growing  in  use.  In  acorn 
standard  American  pronunciation  is  ['ei^koin],  but  in 
some  regions  of  the  South  and  West  an  earlier  pronun- 
ciation ['eiksm]  survives  in  local  use.  For  frontier  the 
usual  American  pronunciation  is  [frAn'tiaj],  but  in  Eng- 
land ffrAntio].  For  quinine  a  number  of  pronunciations 
occur  (see  §  213),  the  most  common  being  ['kwaixnain]. 

91.  In  words  of  three  syllables  an  uncertainty  in  usage 
with  respect  to  the  stressing  of  the  first  or  second  syllable 
affects  a  number  of  words,  of  which  a  few  typical  examples 
may  be  cited.  Words  ending  in  -ate  are  commonly 
stressed  on  the  first  syllable,  as  in  acclimate,  compensate, 
concentrate,  confiscate,  contemplate,  demonstrate,  illus- 
trate, though  some  speakers  cultivate  a  pronunciation 
with  stress  on  the  second  syllable.1  For  remonstrate, 
however,  the  stress  is  more  commonly  on  the  second 
syllable.  The  word  consummate  as  a  verb  is  stressed 
on  the  first  syllable,  as  an  adjective  on  the  second. 

92.  Other  instances  of  trisyllabic  words  in  which  usage 
is  unsettled  are  albumen,  armistice,  aspirant,  combatant, 
combative,  opponent,  vagary,  the  prevailing  usage  having 
stress  on  the  first  syllable  of  all  these  words  except  the 
last  two.  For  deficit  only  a  pronunciation  with  stress 
on  the  first  syllable  is  current  in  America,  but  [di'fisit] 
is  general  in  England.  For  envelope  (noun)  the  pro- 
nunciation   is    often    [en'vetap],    but    more    commonly 

1  See  New  English  Dictionary,  under  contemplate. 


46  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

['env^lo-p]  or  ['anva'lo-p],  ['onv^lo-p].  For  eczema  the 
professional  and  formal  pronunciation  is  ['ekzima]  or 
['eksima],  but  popularly  the  word  is  often  pronounced 
[ek'ziima].  The  word  plebiscite  is  a  somewhat  learned 
word  with  no  definitely  fixed  popular  pronunciation.  It 
is  most  commonly  pronounced  ['plebivsait],  ['plebisit], 
and  less  frequently  [ple'bisit].  For  gondola,  a  somewhat 
learned  word,  the  conventional  pronunciation  is  ['gandala], 
but  in  popular  speech  often  [gan'doita].  For  vehement 
the  standard  pronunciation  is  [Viamont],  but  [vi'hiimant] 
is  heard  in  popular  speech.  For  inquiry  a  pronunciation 
with  stress  on  the  first  syllable  is  sometimes  heard,  but 
the  common  standard  pronunciation  is  [m'kwairi].  For 
idea  the  standard  pronunciation  is  [ai'dia],  but  one  fre- 
quently hears,  especially  in  the  South,  ['gjdia].  A  pro- 
nunciation ['ai'di:],  with  both  syllables  about  equally 
stressed,  is  popular  and  illiterate. 

93.  Under  the  head  of  words  of  three  syllables  may 
be  considered  words  ending  in  -able,  since  the  1  in  this 
ending  is  very  lightly  syllabic.  The  general  tendency  is 
to  stress  these  words  on  the  first  syllable,  unless  the  in- 
fluence of  another  form,  like  deny,  rely,  comply,  preserves 
the  stress  on  the  second  syllable,  as  in  deniable  [di'naiabl], 
reliable  [n'laiabl],  compilable  [kam'plaiabl].  But  refer- 
able, preferable  are  always  ['refarabl],  ['prefarabl],  in 
spite  of  refer,  prefer,  [n'fsj],  [pn'fai].  In  applicable, 
despicable,  disreputable,  formidable,  hospitable,  the 
stress  is  commonly  on  the  first  syllable,  but  not  infre- 
quently the  second  syllable  is  stressed  by  cultivated 
speakers.  In  admirable,  dissoluble,  lamentable,  refutable, 
revocable,  the  stress  is  very  rarely  on  the  second,  though 
this  pronunciation  for  admirable  is  frequent  in  popu- 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  47 

lar  English,  and  may  sometimes  be  heard  in  the  other 
words,  perhaps  through  the  influence  of  head  forms  like 
dissolve  [di'zoilv],  lament  [ta'ment],  refute  [n'fjuit], 
revoke  [ri'voik]. 

94.  An  instance  of  unexpected  stress  in  a  trisyllabic 
word  is  Willamette  [wi'lsemot],  town  and  river  in  Oregon. 

95.  In  words  of  four  syllables  the  question  is  again  one 
of  stressing  either  the  first  or  the  second  syllable,  though 
when  the  first  syllable  is  stressed,  there  is  usually  more 
or  less  secondary  stress  on  the  third.  Thus  for  contem- 
plative the  most  general  pronunciation  is  [kan'templotiv], 
but  also  ['kantam^ple-trv];  for  aristocrat  both  [a'nstokrset] 
and  ['aerista^krset] ;  for  fragmentary  the  general  pronun- 
ciation ['fraegmanHeri],  but  sometimes  [frseg'mentan]. 
For  difficulty  the  only  current  pronunciation  in  America 
is  fdrfikolti].  For  diocesan  the  analogy  of  diocese 
['daiasis]  sometimes  produces  a  pronunciation  [Maio'siisan] 
for  standard  [dai'osisan].  But  the  word  is  learned  and 
has  no  general  currency. 

96.  For  advertisement  both  Paedva/taizmont]  and 
[sedVsjtizmQnt]  are  in  current  use;  for  obligatory  both 
[a'blig^ton]  and  ['ablig^ton] ;  for  peremptory  both 
['peromHon]  and  [par'emptan].  The  standard  pronun- 
ciation of  municipal  is  [mju'msopl],  but  a  popular  form 
Pmjuno'sipl]  is  sometimes  heard.  For  capillary  both 
['kaep^len]  and  [ka'pilan]  are  current,  the  former  being 
the  more  general.  For  celibacy  the  current  pronunciation 
in  America  is  ['selobisi],  but  in  England  both  ['selabisi] 
and  [sa'hbosi]  are  in  standard  use. 

97.  In  general,  American  speech  makes  a  much  greater 
use  of  secondary  stress  in  polysyllables  than  British 


48  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

speech.  Words  like  declamatory,  dignitary,  derogatory, 
dysentery,  extraordinary,  sedentary,  temporary,  many 
place  names,  such  as  Birmingham,  Bradbury,  etc.,  com- 
monly receive  in  England  only  one  stress,  [di'klsemitn], 
['dignitri],  [di'rogatn],  ['disontri],  [ik'stro:dnn],  ['sedontri], 
['tempren],  ['bAimirpm],  ['braedbri];  but  in  America  such 
words  almost  universally  bear  a  strong  secondary  stress 
besides  the  main  stress,  as  in  [di'klsem^ton],  ['digna^teri], 
[di'rogoHon],  ['disanHen],  [ik'stroudi^nen],  ['sedan^ten], 
['tempaVen],  ['baamir/haem],  ['breed^ben]. 

98.  In  some  words,  however,  secondary  stress,  though 
heard  in  popular  speech,  has  been  discarded  in  culti- 
vated pronunciation,  e.g.,  interest,  interesting,  ['intanst], 
['mtonstirj],  popularly]  pronounced  ['interest],  ['intar- 
^estirj]  or  Pmtor'estirj];  cemetery  ['semitri],  popularly 
['semo^ten] ;  favorite  ['feivrit],  genuine  [^enjum],  popu- 
larly ['feivoVait],  ['dsenju^am]. 

99.  Vowels  in  Unstressed  Syllables.  The  general 
tendency  of  vowels  in  unstressed  syllables,  especially  in 
informal  colloquial  speech,  is  to  weaken  and  to  become 
the  vowel  [a],  or  in  certain  endings,  [i],  see  §§  146,  173. 
Sometimes,  however,  in  more  formal  speech,  a  vowel  is 
used  in  unstressed  syllables  which  has  not  the  full  and 
clear  value  which  one  ordinarily  gives  to  the  vowel  in 
stressed  position,  nor  yet  the  weakened  sound  of  [d]  or 
[i],  but  a  sound  intermediate  between  the  two.  Thus 
the  word  oblige  in  informal  speech  would  be  [o'blaids], 
and  in  very  formal  speech,  a  kind  of  spelling-pronunciation, 
it  might  be  [o'blaid3].  But  the  initial  vowel  is  more 
likely  to  be  a  compromise  between  [o]  and  [o],  and  if  it  is 
desirable  to  indicate  this  orthographically,  it  is  suggested 
that  this  be  done  by  placing  two  dots  over  the  [o],  giving 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  49 

[o'blaids].  The  same  device  can  be  applied  to  the  other 
vowels.  Thus  the  word  violet  may  be  transcribed  as 
normally  ['vaialit],  but  formally  as  ['vaiolet];  attack  as 
normally  [a'taek],  but  formally  [ae'taek];  fashion  as  nor- 
mally [rfa3$n]  or  ['faeSan],  but  formally  ['fse$on].  It  has  not 
been  deemed  necessary  to  indicate  these  distinctions  in 
the  transcriptions  of  the  present  volume. 

100.  Sound  groups.  The  division  of  speech  into  de- 
tached words,  as  in  conventional  printing  and  writing, 
does  not  usually  correspond  to  the  actual  sound  groupings 
of  the  language  as  spoken.  In  the  phrase  Life  like  a 
dome  of  many  colored  glass  ['laif  laika'doim  ov'meni- 
'kAlsjd'glaes],  there  are  only  three  sound  groups,  the 
last  being  as  much  a  single  sound  group  as  the  word  in- 
comprehensibility [m'kampri'hensi'biliti].  In  phonetic 
transcriptions,  however,  it  seems  more  convenient  to 
follow  the  traditional  division  into  words,  except  when 
for  special  reasons  it  is  advisable  to  indicate  the  real 
phonetic  groupings. 

101.  In  some  few  words  like  don't,  hasn't,  isn't,  won't, 
this  fusing  of  words  into  sound  groups  is  represented  in 
the  conventional  spelling,  and  writers  of  dialect  stories 
often  indicate  them  by  spelling,  as  in  "I  gotta  go"  for 
"I've  got  to  go."  But  what  is  thus  made  a  humorous 
dialect  characteristic  is  humorous  only  because  of  the 
unconventional  spelling.  All  current  colloquial  speech 
in  some  degree  makes  such  combinations  and  'telescop- 
ings'  of  words  which  are  syntactically  closely  related,  e.g., 
I  used  to  think  [ai  'justo  0rrjk];  Don't  you  want  to  come? 
['domt$u  'wanta  kAm?];  It  wasn't  your  turn  ['twAzon'tJuj 
Hajn];  Did  you  get  it?  [did38  'get  it?]  or  [d^  'get  it?]. 


50  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

102.  Pitch.  It  is  impossible  to  indicate  by  any  simple 
mechanical  means  which  are  adequate  the  rising  and 
falling  intonations  of  the  voice  in  speech.  Three  degrees 
of  pitch  are  readily  observable,  which  may  be  designated 
as  high,  level  and  low,  and  one  may  construct  intonation 
curves  which  will  correspond  to  these  more  obvious  changes 
of  pitch  in  connected  speech.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if 
these  curves  will  convey  to  any  one  not  already  familiar 
with  the  speech  a  satisfactory  realization  of  its  cadences. 
The  intonations  of  a  speech  are  very  important  for  its 
idiomatic  use,  but  they  are  too  subtle  and  varied  for 
simple  description,  and  must  therefore  be  learned  by 
direct  observation  and  experience.  Perhaps  the  most 
apparent  general  characteristic  of  American  speech,  so 
far  as  cadence  is  concerned,  is  its  levelness  of  tone.  The 
voice  rises  and  falls  within  a  relatively  narrow  range,  and 
with  few  abrupt  transitions  from  high  to  low  or  low  to 
high.  To  British  ears  American  speech  often  sounds 
hesitating,  monotonous  and  indecisive,  and  British 
speech,  on  the  other  hand,  is  likely  to  seem  to  Americans 
abrupt,  explosive  and  manneristic.  Both  habits  of  speech, 
it  need  scarcely  be  said,  are  established  by  convention, 
and  one  is  not  more  conscious  or  affected  than  the  other. 

One  reason  for  the  relative  levelness  in  pitch  of  Ameri- 
can speech  may  be  that  the  American  voice  in  general 
starts  on  a  higher  plane,  is  normally  pitched  higher  than 
the  British  voice.  If  it  is  true,  as  is  often  said,  that 
American  life  is  more  intense,  more  highly  keyed  nerv- 
ously, than  life  in  England,  the  high  pitch  of  the  American 
voice  may  reasonably  be  regarded  as  a  natural  consequence 
of  this  state  of  affairs.  There  is  likely  to  be  less  range  of 
cadence  in  a  tense  than  in  a  relaxed  manner  of  speech.  If 
one   ventured  to  give  any  general  advice  to  American 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  51 

speakers,  it  would  be  therefore  to  cultivate  repose  and 
ease  of  utterance.  From  this  will  result  naturally  the 
variety  in  cadence  and  the  flexibility  which  give  to  speech 
its  characteristic  melodic  qualities.  The  relatively  dry 
climate  of  America  may  have  something  to  do  also  with 
the  high  pitch  of  the  American  voice.  It  is  a  fact  easy  of 
verification  that  the  pitch  of  one's  voice  is  considerably 
lower  in  soft  foggy  weather  than  it  is  on  a  dry  clear  day. 

103.  Speed.  The  rate  of  speed  in  utterance  varies 
widely  with  the  emotional  quality  of  the  content  of 
speech,  and  also  with  the  temperament  of  individuals. 
Some  people  talk  like  greased  lightning,  others  are  as 
slow  as  molasses.  American  speech  as  compared  with 
British  is  commonly  said  to  be  slow  and  ' drawling.'  The 
effect  of  'drawling'  is  partly  produced  by  the  levelness 
of  intonation  in  American  speech,  partly  by  the  retention 
of  secondary  stresses  in  polysyllables  (see  §  97),  though 
partly  also  by  a  distinctly  slow  tempo  in  the  utterance  of 
many  speakers.  The  habit  of  slow  tempo  in  speech  is 
usually  regarded  in  America,  however,  as  a  mark  of  rustic 
speech,  or  of  somewhat  humorous  Brother  Jonathan 
speech,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  on  the  whole  American  culti- 
vated speech  is  any  slower  than  British  speech.  Even  if 
it  were,  however,  this  could  not  be  said  to  constitute  a 
very  serious  charge  against  the  language. 

104.  Timbre.  The  timbre,  or  characteristic  quality 
of  the  speaking  voice,  is  something  over  which  the  indi- 
vidual has  very  little  control.  It  is  determined  by  nature 
through  the  special  character  and  shape  of  each  person's 
vocal  apparatus,  including  of  course  the  vocal  chords, 
just  as  the  characteristic  sound  of  a  fife  or  flute  or  other 
instrument  is  determined  by  its  physical  structure.    Since 


52  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

probably  no  two  persons  have  exactly  the  same  physical 
equipment  of  speech,  the  timbre  of  no  two  voices  can  be 
exactly  alike.  Timbre  is  therefore  the  most  individual 
and  personal  of  all  the  elements  of  speech.  A  keen  ear 
can  readily  distinguish  several  different  voices  and  assign 
them  definitely  to  their  owners,  even  when  the  voices 
pronounce  what  we  commonly  call  the  same  sound.  From 
its  nature  timbre  does  not  enter  into  the  discussion  of 
practice  in  pronunciation.  Training  may,  of  course, 
accomplish  much  in  enabling  one  to  realize  the  possibilities 
of  one's  'organ/  as  for  example  by  correcting  defects  and 
developing  the  various  muscles  controlling  the  production 
of  speech,  but  training  cannot  alter  its  essential  character. 

105.  Proper  Names.  The  pronunciation  of  proper 
names,  both  place  names  and  personal  names,  is  in  general 
subject  to  the  same  rules  as  the  pronunciation  of  the  other 
words  of  the  language.  A  traditional  spelling  is  more 
likely  to  be  retained  in  proper  names,  however,  long  after 
the  pronunciation  has  changed.  This  is  especially  true 
in  family  names,  in  which  conservative  family  tradition 
often  preserves  a  spelling  which  corresponds  very  in- 
adequately to  the  current  pronunciation  of  the  names. 
In  England  this  peculiarity  is  more  marked  than  in 
America,  and  spellings  and  pronunciations  like  Colquhoun 
[ka'huin],  Claverhouse  ['klaevaz],  Cockburn  ['kouban], 
Marjoribanks  ['mai$-,  'ma:t$b8enks],  Meagher  ['maia], 
Rivaulx  ['rivaz],  to  mention  but  a  few  among  many,  are 
likely  to  seem  grotesque  to  the  American  eye  and  ear. 
In  America  the  general  tendency  is  to  bring  about  a  closer 
agreement  between  spelling  and  pronunciation,  and  for 
Colquhoun  we  commonly  have  Calhoun,  for  Cockburn 
either  Coburn  or  a  pronunciation  which  corresponds  to 


DESCRIPTION   OF   SOUNDS  53 

the  spelling  Cockburn,  for  Meagher  a  spelling  Maher,  or 
a  spelling  Meeker  with  corresponding  pronunciation,  or 
Meagher  is  pronounced  ['miigaij. 

106.  Some  American  place  names  are  direct  borrowings 
from  England,  such  as  Leominster  ['leminstai],  Glouces- 
ter ['glostaj],  Worcester  ['wuistai],  in  Massachusetts,  and 
have  retained  an  archaic  spelling.  But  the  name  of  the 
town  in  Ohio  named  after  the  town  in  Massachusetts 
is  Wooster,  and  many  other  proper  names  in  America 
have  undergone  a  similar  rationalizing  modification. 
Since  proper  names  are  always  the  personal  possessions, 
so  to  speak,  either  of  families,  or  of  localities  in  which 
they  are  current,  their  pronunciations  and  spellings  must 
be  accepted  in  the  form  which  their  possessors  wish  them 
to  have. 

107.  Many  names  of  foreign  origin  have  been  American- 
ized, French  Du  Bois  being  pronounced  [du'boiz],  Ger- 
man Koch  pronounced  [kat$],  Dutch  Schurman,  in  which 
sch  was  [sk],  as  it  still  is  in  Schuylkill  ['skuilkil],  Schuy- 
ler ['skaitai],  etc.,  being  pronounced  as  though  it  were 
the  same  as  Sherman.  One  cannot  make  a  general  rule 
as  to  the  pronunciation  of  such  names  of  foreign  origin, 
though  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  main  any  efforts  which 
individuals  may  make  to  preserve  the  pronunciation  of 
their  names  in  accordance  with  their  original  phonetic 
forms  are  likely  to  prove  unavailing  in  view  of  the  strong 
general  tendency  to  follow  native  analogies  in  pronuncia- 
tion. Change  in  pronunciation  may  of  course  be  held  in 
check  by  changing  spelling,  as  was  done  in  the  name 
Knickerbocker,  originally  spelled  with  a  in  the  next  to 
last  syllable,  pronounced  [a],  but  changed  to  o  to  avoid 
the  common  tendency  to  pronounce  a  as  [se]  or  [e].    In- 


54  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

cidentally  this  change  throws  light  on  the  American  pro- 
nunciation of  o,  see  §§  110-111.  It  may  be  added  that 
in  thus  Americanizing  names  of  foreign  origin,  American 
speakers  have  done  no  more  than  English-speaking  peoples 
have  always  done,  as,  for  example,  in  what,  from  the 
Gallic  point  of  view,  must  seem  outrageous  Anglicizations 
of  Bourchier  into  ['baut$o],  of  Belvoir  into  fbiiva],  of 
Beaulieu  into  fbjuili].  The  French  even  the  account, 
however,  by  Gallicizing  English  names,  and  any  foreign 
words  which  pass  current  among  a  people  are  almost  sure 
to  suffer  a  sea-change  in  the  course  of  time. 

108.  A  somewhat  noticeable  feature  in  the  American 
as  well  as  British  pronunciation  of  proper  names  is  the 
tendency  to  stress  dissyllabic  family  names  on  the 
second  syllable,  especially  when  in  spelling  the  second 
syllable  is  written  with  a  double  consonant,  as  in  the  pro- 
nunciations Birrell  [bi'rel],  Bithell  [bi'0el],  Cornell  [koj'nel], 
Burnett  [baj'net],  Bennett,  Bennet  [be'net],  Gillett 
[d3i'let],  Furness  [faj'nes],  Purcell  [paj'sel],  Purnell 
[paj'nel],  etc.,  but  also  even  Farrar  [fa'rau],  Millard  [mi- 
laud],  etc.  In  older  usage  these  names  were  commonly 
all  stressed  on  the  first  syllable,  and  in  some  instances  the 
pronunciation  with  stress  on  the  second  syllable  is  quite 
recent  and  consciously  assumed. 

109.  Levels  of  Speech.  It  is  extremely  important  in 
the  study  of  speech  to  be  able  to  observe  with  detachment 
speech  habits  which  in  the  main  are  quite  unconscious. 
Though  conscious  speech  habits  are  by  no  means  unim- 
portant, they  constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole 
complex  of  a  language  and  rarely  indicate  the  direction 
of  development  which  the  language  is  taking.  The  student 
must  cultivate  the  ability  to  observe  the  activities  of 


DESCRIPTION    OF   SOUNDS  55 

natural  speech,  which  is  normal  speech,  utilized  for  the 
purposes  of  communication  with  very  little  thought  as 
to  its  formal  character.  Natural  or  normal  speech  thus 
differs  from  precise  speech,  which  is  largely  self-conscious 
and  theoretical,  and  it  differs  also  from  slovenly  speech 
with  which  the  precise  speaker  is  inclined  to  confuse  it. 
A  speech  may  be  fairly  characterized  as  slovenly  only 
when  its  articulations  are  habitually  muddy  and  indis- 
tinct, when  its  general  effect  is  such  as  to  indicate  a 
laxness  of  speech  activities  parallel  to  what  untidiness 
and  uncleanliness  would  be  in  other  personal  habits. 
Ungrammatical  or  dialect  speech  is  not  necessarily  slov- 
enly, and  in  fact  it  is  often  the  reverse,  being  frequently 
very  crisp  and  energetic.  On  the  other  hand,  one  may 
find  slovenly  speakers  even  among  those  who  pass  as 
highly  cultivated.  The  natural  level,  between  precise 
and  slovenly  speech,  may  best  be  observed  in  the  familiar 
conversation  of  educated  persons  whose  habits  of  speech 
are  not  finical  or  affected. 

The  appeal  in  testing  natural  speech  must  always  be 
to  the  ear.  No  one  'speaks  as  he  writes'  in  English,  and 
the  attempt  to  regulate  speech  by  the  visible  word  lands 
one  in  countless  absurdities.  The  precise  speaker,  how- 
ever, will  often  do  violence  to  the  natural  form  of  a  word 
in  order  to  make  it  over  according  to  the  pattern  of  the 
visible  word.  No  one  in  natural  speech  pronounces 
two  g's  in  suggest  [safest],  and  it  is  a  purist  affectation  to 
attempt  to  do  so.  In  asked  no  one  pronounces  a  final  [d], 
the  sound  being  always  [t],  and  in  current  speech,  no  one 
pronounces  both  a  clear  [k]  and  a  clear  [t].  One  may 
pronounce  a  very  slight  [k]-sound,  though  most  speakers 
have  no  [k]  at  all,  but  simply  a  long  [s],  e.g.,  [aisit],  and 
some  omit  the  [t]  altogether,  pronouncing  the  preterite 


56  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

like  the  present.  This  last  pronunciation  is  not  prevalent 
among  cultivated  speakers,  though  it  represents  no  greater 
departure  from  the  written  form  of  the  word  than  the 
prevalent  pronunciation.  In  any  case  the  natural  pro- 
nunciation departs  from  the  conventional  spelling.  In 
natural  speech,  unstressed  vowels  tend  to  become  [a], 
as,  for  example,  about  [o'baut],  upon  [a'pon],  amend, 
emend  [a'mend],  national  ['nseSanal],  description  [di- 
'skrip$an],  [da'skripjan],  and  only  a  conscious  desire  to 
reform  the  natural  speech  could  lead  to  the  attempt  to 
introduce  a  clear  vowel  in  the  unstressed  syllable  of  these 
words.  But  it  seems  safer  to  follow  the  normal  processes 
of  the  language,  and  in  doing  so,  one  cannot  do  better  than 
direct  attention  to  the  unconstrained  speech  of  educated 
and  well-bred  persons.  The  decision  who  such  persons 
are  must  naturally  be  left  to  individual  judgment. 

All  natural  and  unconstrained  speech  is  not,  however, 
on  the  same  level.  The  speech  of  formal  discourse  and 
of  the  public  address,  and  in  general  of  all  expression  where 
exceptional  clearness  and  carrying  power  are  important, 
differs  in  many  details  from  the  speech  of  colloquial  and 
familiar  conversation.  Each  is  of  course  appropriate 
in  its  own  surroundings,  and  it  would  be  as  much  an 
error  to  speak  formally  when  the  situation  called  for 
familiar  speech  as  to  speak  colloquially  in  a  formal  situa- 
tion. If  either  level  of  speech  be  regarded  as  exceptional, 
it  is  obviously  the  formal  speech,  as  the  speech  of  a 
special  occasion,  that  must  be  so  regarded.  In  this 
volume  the  unconstrained  colloquial  speech  of  educated 
and  well-bred  persons  has  been  taken  as  the  norm,  and 
deviations  from  it  have  been  characterized  as  formal  or 
precise  or  dialectal  (provincial,  local,  or  popular),  or 
slovenly. 


Ill 

SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE 

[a] 

110.  A  short  vowel  [a]  is  general  in  America,  with 
local  exceptions  in  New  England,  in  fop  [fap],  got  [gat], 
hot  [hat],  lot  [lat],  not  [nat],  stock  [stak],  chocolate  ['t$aklitj, 
and  many  other  words  written  with  o  before  a  voiceless 
stop.  In  sections  of  New  England,  as  in  British  pronun- 
ciation, such  words  have  a  sound  which  closely  approxi- 
mates [o],  that  is,  [fop],  [hot],  [lot],  [not],  [stok],  ['t$okht], 
etc.,  and  this  pronunciation  may  also  be  heard,  especially 
in  certain  words,  for  example  chocolate,  elsewhere,  though 
exceptionally,  in  America. 

111.  In  many  other  words  commonly  written  o,  usage 
varies  widely  throughout  America  between  [o]  and  [a], 
the  length  of  these  vowels  also  varying  from  short  to 
half-long  or  long,  and  even  at  times  to  over-long.  The 
quantities  are  so  unstable  that  it  is  difficult  to  indicate 
them  with  certainty: 

(a)  Before  a  voiced  stop,  both  pronunciations  occur 
in  dog  [dog]  or  [dag],  log  [log]  or  [lag],  hog  [hog]  or  [hag], 
etc.;  in  God  [god]  or  [gad],  sod  [sod]  or  [sad],  etc.  Before 
[b],  however,  the  preponderance  of  usage  seems  to  be 
markedly  in  favor  of  [a],  as  in  rob  [rab],  sob  [sab],  nobby 
['nabi],  etc.  The  pronunciation  of  daub  [do:b]  as  [dab] 
is  popular  and  dialectal. 

57 


58  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   i  HI   JCA 

(b)  Before  the  continuant  consonants  the  same  ora- 
tion occurs: 

(1)  be/ore  [1]  or  [r]:  doll  [dol]  or  [dal],  follow  ['folo]  r 
t'falo],  hollow  ['holo]  or  ['halo],  pollen  ['pi  bn]  or  ['paten], 
etc. 

coo/oner  ['koranw]  or  ['karan&i],  forest  ['ionst]  or  [mrist], 
foreign  ['form]  or  ['farm],  forehead  ['fond]  or  ['farid], 
horrid  ['bond]  or  ['hand],  orange  ['orind3J  or  ['annd^j, 
torrid  [\  jrid]  or  ['tarid]. 

(2)  before  nasal  continuants:  John  [d3on]  or  [d3cm], 
on  [on]  or  [an],  strong  [strorj]  or  [strarj],  pomp  [pomp]  or 
[pamp],  romp  [romp]  or  [ramp],  etc. 

The  pronunciations  [stomp]  for  stamp  (verb)  [staemp] 
and  [tromp]  for  tramp  (verb)  [traemp]  are  dialectal. 

For  bomb  the  current  pronunciations  in  America  c/e 
[bam]  and  [bom],  and  [bAm]  is  also  heard,  though  probably 
less  commonly  in  America  than  in  England.  The  in- 
fluerce  of  the  spelling  favors  [bom],  and  for  this  reason 
many  speakers  incline  to  regard  [bAm]  as  a  popular  pJkd 
dialectal  pronunciation.  See  §  204.  The  pronunciation 
[bum]  is  not  general. 

(3)  before  other  continuants: 

coffee  ['kofi]  or  ['kafi],  off  [of]  or  [of],  often  ['tfn]  or 
['am],  soft  [soft]  or  [saft],  cough  [kof]  or  [kaf]. 

cost  [kost]  or  [kast],  docile  ['dosil]  or  ['dasil],  hospital 
['hospitl]  or  ['haspitl],  ostrich  ['ostnt$]  or  ['astntj], 
BosweU  f'bozwel]  or  ['bazwel],  rosin  ['rozin]  or  ['razm]. 

broth  [bro0]  or  [bra0],  Gothic  ['goflik]  or  fgaflik],  moth 
[mo0]  or  [ma0],  bother  ['bot5oj]  or  ['batSoj]. 

grovel  ['grovol]  or  ['gravol],  also  ['grAval],  novel  {no vol] 
C  J    aval];  hovel  is  ['havol]  or  ['hAvol],  never  ['hovol];  so 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  59 

also  hover  ['havaj]  or  ['hAvoj].    For  shovel  the  only  pro- 
nunciation is  ['$avo1],  ['$av1]. 

(c)  After  [w],  the  sounds  in  question  occur  in  words 
usually  written  a,  but  with  a  similar  variation  in  usage, 
though  the  preference  here  seems  to  be  clearly  in  favor  of 
[o],  as  in  quarrel  ['kworal],  swamp  [swomp],  swan  [swon], 
want  [wont],  wash  [wo$],  wasp  [wasp],  water  ['wotai]. 
But  the  preference  is  by  no  means  consistent,  and  ['swalo], 
['wabl]  seem  to  be  more  common  for  swallow,  noun  and 
verb,  and  wabble,  than  ['swolo],  ['wobi];  and  in  individual 
usage,  many  speakers  who  say  wash  [wo$],  Washington 
['wo$ir)ton]  will  also  pronounce  watch  as  [wat$]  and  squab 
as  [skwab].  This  inconsistency  extends  through  the 
whole  group  of  words,  and  the  same  speaker  who  says 
God  [gad]  will  say  dog  [dog],  and  so  with  many  other 
words.  In  such  a  state  of  affairs,  all  that  can  be  said 
with  respect  to  these  usages  is  that  they  vary  according 
to  habit  or  preference.  One  caution  may  be  entered, 
however,  against  making  the  vowel  [o]  too  long,  as  in  the 
pronunciations  commonly  indicated  in  dialect  stories  by 
the  spellings  dawg  and  Gawd,  that  is,  [doig],  [go id]. 

On  the  dialectal  pronunciation  of  [01]  as  [a]  or  [ai], 
see  §  187. 

112.  The  colloquial  contraction  aren't  ['arant],  or 
with  omission  of  the  r  [aint],  often  becomes  [eint],  [eint], 
but  only  in  very  familiar  colloquial  or  dialect  pronuncia- 
tion. The  pronunciation  [eint],  [eint]  is  also  extended  to 
the  singular  in  dialect  speech.  In  the  first  person  singular, 
interrogative,  one  occasionally  hears  farant  ai],  or  some- 
times [sent  ai]  from  cultivated  speakers,  who  use  this 
form  to  avoid  the  somewhat  awkward  "  am  not  I,"  but  the 
usage  is  not  general. 


60  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

113.  The  pronunciation  of  was  is  [waz]  or  [woz],  or  in 
rapid  speech  and  when  the  word  is  lightly  stressed,  [waz]. 
The  pronunciation  [waz]  when  the  word  is  stressed  is 
scarcely  cultivated  usage. 

For  [a]  in  the  diphthong  [au],  see  §  222. 

[a:] 

114.  This  sound  occurs  in  father  ['faioai],  where  it  is 
practically  universal  in  American  speech,  the  pronuncia- 
tions ['fseicSaj]  and  ['foiSaj]  being  only  occasional  and  dia- 
lectal. But  in  no  other  word  of  the  same  type  does  this 
uniformity  in  usage  obtain.  In  rather  standard  usage 
varies  between  ['raitfei],  ['ra:<58i]  and  ['raeSai],  with  the 
preponderance  in  favor  of  ['raetSar].  ['rAtfei]  is  illiterate 
and  dialectal.  In  other  words,  like  gather,  lather,  slather, 
blather (skite),  Mather,  the  vowel  is  prevailingly  [se],  or 
[ae-],  with  local  exceptions  in  New  England  in  favor  of 
[a:],  see  §  125.  [a-]  or  [a]  occurs  also  in  bother,  which 
forms  a  fairly  satisfactory  ear-rime  with  father,  though 
it  offends  the  eye.  Beside  ['bo-Sai],  or  ['battel],  much 
less  commonly  ['botfej]  also  occurs,  see  §  111,  (3). 

115.  [ai]  occurs  regularly  in  words  where  a  is  written 
before  lm,  the  1  being  silent,  in  psalm  [sa:m],  palm  [paim], 
balm  [bairn],  calm  [kaim],  alms  [a:mz],  see  §§  274-276. 
In  salmon,  almond  both  ['sseman],  faemond]  andfsaiman], 
['aimand]  occur.  A  spelling-pronunciation,  with  the  1 
sounded,  is  sometimes  heard  in  these  two  words,  but  is 
not  general.  Before  f,  s,  th,  nee,  nch,  nt,  If,  lv,  [a:]  occurs 
locally  in  some  regions  of  the  East,  but  generally  the 
sound  varies  between  [a:],  [se],  [33*],  and  in  some  words 
[01],  see  §§  124,  128.    For  au  pronounced  [ax],  see  §  186. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       61 

116.  Before  [j]  final  or  preceding  a  consonant,  a, 
often  also  ea,  of  the  conventional  spelling,  is  [a:],  as  hart, 
heart  [haut],  star  [stau],  marred  [maud],  Clark (e) 
[klauk],  etc.,  hearth  [hau0],  large  [lauds]. 

117.  In  British  English  certain  words  spelled  e  before 
r  and  a  consonant  are  pronounced  [a:],  with  the  r  silent,  as 
in  clerk  [klaik],  Hertford  ['haitfad],  Derby  ['daibi],  but  in 
America  words  which  are  so  written  are  pronounced  with 
[9],  and  when  they  are  pronounced  with  [ai],  as  in  the 
proper  name  Clark(e),  they  are  written  with  a.  An 
exception  in  American  speech  is  sergeant,  which  is  com- 
monly pronounced  ['saud38nt],  like  the  proper  name 
Sargent. 

118.  The  standard  pronunciation  of  hearth  is  [hau0], 
but  [hsjfl]  is  also  heard  as  an  old-fashioned  or  dialectal 
pronunciation. 

119.  Those  speakers  who  have  no  [j]  before  consonants 
and  finally,  have  [ai]  in  words  like  hard  [hard],  part  [pa it], 
harp  [haip],  hearth  [hai0],  marred  [maid],  tar  [tai],  car 
[kai].  But  some  speakers  in  New  England  have  a  vowel 
in  these  words  which  closely  approximates  [ai],  and  even 
at  times  [sei],  e.g.,  Harvard  ['haivad],  part  [pa it],  etc.,  see 
§  45,  note,  where  this  sound  is  indicated  by  the  spelling 
Ha  wad. 

For  the  pronunciations  tar  [taia],  car  [kaia],  etc.,  see 
§301. 

120.  [ai],  sometimes  shortened  to  [a],  occurs  in  some 
words  of  foreign  origin,  as  in  lava  ['laivo],  data  ['daita], 
errata  [e'raita],  bas-relief  pbain'liif],  spa  [spai],  mirage 
[mi'rai3],    garage    [ga'ra^],    popularly    often    ['gserids], 


62  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

though  some  of  these  also  have  Anglicized  pronunciations 
with  [ae],  e.g.,  ['lsevo],  ['dseto],  etc.  The  word  vase  is 
either  [vaiz]  or  [veis],  [veiz],  the  last  being  much  the  most 
general  pronunciation.  The  pronunciation  of  tomato  is 
commonly  [to'me-to],  but  [to'maito]  is  also  in  fairly  general 
use,  especially  as  a  consciously  cultivated  pronunciation. 
The  form  [ta'mseto]  is  relatively  rare.  In  piano,  the  form 
[pi'aeno]  is  general,  [pi'aino]  exceptional.  For  drama 
three  pronunciations  are  current,  ['draimo],  ['drsemo] 
and  ['dreimo],  though  the  first  is  the  only  one  widely 
used.  For  suave  the  usual  American  pronunciation  is 
[swaiv],  but  in  England  [sweiv]. 

121.  In  American  place  names,  like  Alabama,  Colorado, 
Nevada,  Nebraska,  Montana,  a  pronunciation  with  [a:] 
in  the  stressed  syllable  is  sometimes  heard,  especially  in 
the  East,  but  in  the  states  themselves  and  in  America 
generally,  the  words  are  pronounced  [aelo'bsemo],  [kalo- 
'rgedo],  [na'vaeda],  [no'brsesko],  [mon'taeno]. 

122.  Where  cultivated  speech  regularly  has  [oi],  as  in 
caught  [koit],  bought  [bo it],  haughty  ['hoiti],  naughty 
fnoiti],  etc.,  a  dialect  pronunciation  [kait],  [bait],  ['haiti], 
['naiti],  etc.,  prevails  in  some  regions. 

123.  In  several  regions  oi  the  Atlantic  seaboard  a 
glide  vowel  is  introduced  between  a  preceding  [k],  [g] 
and  [ai],  as  in  the  Virginia  pronunciation  of  carter 
[ki'aito],  garden  [gi'aidon],  but  this  pronunciation  is 
distinctly  local  or  dialectal.    See  §  217. 

[ai] 

124.  This  sound  occurs  as  a  simple  vowel  normally 
only  as  a  long  or  half-long  vowel,  though  the  short  of  it 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       63 

appears  as  the  first  element  in  the  diphthong  [ai],  see  §  209. 
It  is  heard  in  certain  positions,  chiefly  in  somewhat 
conscious  and  academic  speech,  as  a  compromise  sound 
between  [a:],  which  is  rejected  as  being  too  l broad/  and 
[ae]  or  [ae-],  a  popular  sound  widely  distributed  over  the 
whole  country,  which  is  rejected  as  being  too  ' narrow'  or 
'flat.'  It  is  cultivated  in  words  written  a,  sometimes  au, 
before  a  voiceless  continuant,  or  before  a  nasal  followed 
by  a  voiceless  stop  or  continuant,  as  in  grass,  half,  laugh, 
path  (also  before  a  voiced  continuant,  as  in  paths,  calves, 
halves,  baths,  when  the  voiced  form  is  a  variant,  usually 
the  plural,  of  a  head  form  with  a  voiceless  sound),  aunt, 
branch,  can't,  dance,  fancy,  France,  shan't,  etc. 

125.  Before  a  voiced  continuant  and  before  a  nasal 
followed  by  a  voiced  stop  or  continuant,  a  is  usually 
pronounced  [ae],  as  in  flange  [flaend3],  grand  [grsend],  has 
[hsez],  have  [haev],  lather  [IseSai],  rather  ['raetSaj],  pansy 
['paenzi],  though  speakers  who  acquire  the  pronunciation 
[a]  consciously  and  attempt  to  carry  it  through  consistently 
sometimes  indulge  in  pronunciations  like  ['panzi],  [haz],  etc. 

126.  Some  exceptions  to  the  above  groupings  may  be 
noted:  cant  (noun)  is  always  [kaent],  and  pant,  pantry, 
panther  are  scarcely  ever  heard  except  as  [paent],  ['psentri], 
['paenflai].  Some  speakers  who  pronounce  aunt  as  [aint], 
say  [sent]  for  ant.  The  word  gas  is  almost  universally 
[gaes],  and  hath  (perhaps  because  of  have  and  has,  with 
voiced  consonants)  is  always  [haetf].  Before  [$]  a  is  never 
[a:],  but  [ae],  as  in  dash  [dae$],  fashion  ['fae$an],  rational 
['rae$8nol],  etc. 

127.  When  it  comes  to  a  question  of  choice  among  the 
several  possible  pronunciations  of  dance,  laugh,  branch, 


64  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

etc.,  the  decision  usually  rests  between  [ai]  and  [ae],  [ai] 
being  ruled  out  as  too  'broad'  and  as  somewhat ' la-di-da.' 
And  when  it  comes  to  a  question  of  choice  between  these 
two  the  purist  tendency  has  been  to  condemn  the  pro- 
nunciation [ae],  although  this  is  by  far  the  more  common 
sound  in  all  the  words  in  point  in  American  speech.  The 
result  has  been  to  give  to  [a:]  extraordinary  dictionary 
and  academic  prestige  in  the  face  of  a  strongly  opposing 
popular  usage.  The  reasons  for  this  are  several :  first,  that 
standard  British  speech  and  some  forms  of  New  England 
speech  have  [ai]  in  the  words  in  question;  second,  that 
New  England  has  exerted,  and  to  some  extent  continues 
to  exert,  a  strong  influence  upon  formal  instruction  and 
upon  notions  of  cultivation  and  refinement  throughout 
the  country;  and  third,  that  the  pronunciation  [ae]  is 
often  prolonged,  or  drawled,  and  nasalized  in  a  way  that 
makes  it  seem  not  merely  American,  but  provincially 
American.  To  steer  between  the  Scylla  of  provincialism, 
[ae  i],  and  the  Chary bdis  of  affectation  and  snobbishness, 
[a:],  many  conscientious  speakers  in  America  cultivate 
[ai].  The  writer  has  tested  this  sound  on  many  different 
groups  of  speakers  from  various  sections  of  the  country, 
and  has  never  found  one  who  used  the  sound  who  did 
not  do  so  with  a  certain  degree  of  self-consciousness.  If 
the  cult  of  this  sound  continues  long  enough,  it  may  in 
time  come  to  be  a  natural  and  established  sound  in  the 
language.  In  the  meantime,  it  seems  a  pity  that  so  much 
effort  and  so  much  time  in  instruction  should  be  given  to 
changing  a  natural  habit  of  speech  which  is  inherently 
just  as  good  as  the  one  by  which  the  purist  would  sup- 
plant it.  Especially  in  public  school  instruction  it  would 
seem  to  be  wiser  to  spend  time  on  more  important  matters 
in  speech  than  the  difference  between  [haef]  and  [ha  if  J. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       65 

[«],  [se:] 

128.  This  is  the  sound,  usually  a  short  vowel,  univer- 
sally current  in  hat  [haet],  cab  [kseb],  bad  [baed],  patter 
['paetai],  grand  [grsend],  fashion  ['fae$on],  and  a  large 
number  of  other  words.  It  is  also  the  natural  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  majority  of  American  speakers  in  words 
written  a  before  a  voiced  or  voiceless  continuant  and 
before  n  followed  by  a  voiced  or  voiceless  continuant  or 
stop,  as  in  glass  [glaes],  bath  [bae0],  dance  [daents]  or  [daens], 
can't  [kaent],  branch  [braent$],  etc.  The  vowel  tends  to 
become  long  in  words  of  this  type,  and  locally  and  dia- 
lectally  to  become  over-long,  see  §§  82,  127.  It  is  espe- 
cially likely  to  be  long  before  a  voiced  sound,  for  example, 
path  [pae0],  but  paths  [paeiSz]. 

129.  Before  r,  rr  followed  by  a  vowel,  orthographic  a 
is  usually  [as],  as  in  carry  ['keen],  carriage  ['kaend3],  Clara 
['klaera],  caret  ['kaent],  claret  ['klaerit],  parent  ['paerant], 
Paris  ['paeris],  parish  ['paen$],  marry  ['maeri],  tarry  (verb) 
['taeri].  As  an  adjective  tarry  ['tain]  retains  the  vowel 
of  the  simple  word  tar  [tau].  Some  speakers,  however, 
pronounce  [e]  for  a  before  r  and  a  vowel,  not  distinguish- 
ing parish  and  perish,  marry  and  merry.  The  pronuncia- 
tion with  [ae]  is  to  be  preferred.  A  special  grouping  must 
be  made  for  words  like  chary,  fairy,  Mary,  vary,  wary, 
for  which  see  §§133,  141. 

130.  For  radish  ['raedi$],  the  popular  dialects  often 
have  [['redij].  The  pronunciation  of  plait,  Ho  braid/  is 
[plaet],  but  the  common  form  of  the  word  in  the  sense 
*  to  fold/  Ho  make  folds/  is  pleat  [pliit].  Etymologically 
the  words  have  the  same  origin  and  are  sometimes  con- 
fused.    For  apricot  both  ['aeprfkat]  and  ['eipri^kat]  are 


66  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

in  general  use.  The  final  syllable  may  be  light,  [-kat]. 
For  bade,  past  tense  of  bid,  the  standard  pronunciation  is 
[baed],  as  in  I  bade  him  goodbye  [ai  'baed  him  'gudvbaij, 
though  a  spelling-pronunciation  [be:d]  or  [beid]  is  occa- 
sionally heard,  especially  when  the  word  occurs  in  phrases 
which  have  passed  out  of  colloquial  use.  For  banal  the 
common  pronunciation  is  [bse'nsel]  or  ['baenal],  less  fre- 
quently ['beinal].  Two  pronunciations  are  current  for 
halibut,  ['haetabot]  or  ['hcdabat].  For  raillery  both  ['reilan] 
and  ['raelan]  are  heard,  with  academic  authority  in  favor 
of  the  former;  but  so  far  as  the  word  is  popular  at  all, 
common  usage  favors  the  second.  Two  forms,  ['reijanz] 
and  ['raejonz],  for  rations  are  in  use,  the  second  being  the 
more  general.  For  asphalt  the  common  British  pronun- 
ciation is  [aes'faelt]  or  ['aesxfaelt],  but  in  America  nearly 
always  the  word  is  ['aesxfolt].  The  proper  name  Spokane 
is  locally  [spo'kaen],  and  [spo'kein]  is  heard  from  speakers 
who  know  the  word  only  as  an  eye-word. 

[e],  [e-L  [e.] 

131.  The  sound  represented  by  [e]  can  best  be  observed 
in  words  like  chaotic  [ke'atik],  archa-ic  [aj'ke-ik],  or  in 
polysyllables  like  vacation  [ve'ke-$an]  where  the  first  vowel 
is  short,  the  second  half -long,  Baconian  [be'ko-njan], 
fatally  ['fe*teli],  bakery  ['be-kon],  bay-berry  ['be^beri], 
pay-roll  ['pe-xro-l],  etc.  In  some  of  these  words  the  quan- 
tity varies  from  short  to  half-long  according  to  the  degree 
of  stress.  High  vowels  like  [e]  and  [i]  are  less  likely  to  be 
obviously  prolonged  than  mid  or  low  vowels,  and  one  is 
consequently  often  in  doubt  whether  to  take  them  as  long 
or  short. 

132.  In  monosyllables  with  a  full  stress,  the  vowel 
lengthens  and  frequently  becomes  diphthongal.    This  is 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       67 

especially  apparent  when  the  vowel  is  final,  as  in  day 
[del],  they  [tSei],  whey  [Mei],  etc.,  and  before  voiced  con- 
sonants, as  in  fade  [feid],  grave  [greiv],  haze  [heiz],  etc., 
see  §  207.  Before  voiceless  consonants,  however,  even  in 
stressed  monosyllables,  the  diphthongal  quality  is  very 
slight,  and  often  not  audibly  present  at  all.  Compare, 
for  example,  rate  with  raid  (the  spelling  of  raid  is  not 
significant),  or  face  with  phase,  or  waif  with  wave,  waive. 
If  the  vowel  is  diphthongized  at  all,  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
diphthongal  in  raid,  phase,  wave,  waive,  than  in  rate,  face, 
waif.  But  with  many  speakers  the  diphthongal  quality,  if 
present  at  all,  is  so  slight  as  not  to  be  appreciated  by  the 
ear.  For  such  speakers  the  sound  is  to  be  recorded  simply 
as  [e:].  No  questions  of  propriety  in  usage  are  raised  by 
the  variation  between  [e:]  and  [ei],  the  difference  being 
so  slight  that  it  does  not  attract  attention  to  itself. 

133.  A  clear  [e]-vowel  rarely  occurs  before  [r],  but  is 
sometimes  heard  in  formal  speech  in  vary  (to  distinguish 
the  word  from  very),  Mary  (as  distinguished  from  merry), 
chary  (as  distinguished  from  cherry),  parent,  vagary 
[va'ge-n],  wary,  etc.,  where  the  spelling  exerts  an  influ- 
ence on  the  pronunciation,  see  §  129. 

134.  For  patent  both  ['peitant]  and  ['paetant]  occur, 
the  former  when  the  word  has  the  sense  'obvious/  'ap- 
parent.' But  latent  is  always  ['leitont].  For  quoit  the 
common  popular  pronunciation  is  [kweit],  but  the  culti-* 
vated  and  dictionary  pronunciation  is  [kwoit]  or  [koit]. 
The  common  standard  pronunciation  for  patriot,  patriot- 
ism, patriotic,  in  America  is  ['pe-tnat],  ['pe-tnoHizm], 
[pe-tn'atik],  but  [psetr-]  is  also  heard,  more  frequently 
in  patriotism,  patriotic,  than  in  patriot.  For  Danish  the 
standard  pronunciation  is  ['deini$],  the  long  vowel  being 


68  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN  AMERICA 

maintained  by  the  analogy  of  Dane.  In  popular  speech, 
however,  the  vowel  is  often  shortened,  as  in  ['dseniSJ,  and 
as  it  is  in  both  popular  and  cultivated  speech  in  Spanish 
['spaeni$]  as  compared  with  Spain  [spem].  Cf.  Polish  and 
polish,  §  179.  For  glacier  American  speech  has  ['gleijiaj], 
['gle:$9i],  but  ['glaesjo]  only  as  a  Briticism.  A  pronuncia- 
tion ['gleisiai]  may  be  heard  occasionally  in  formal  speech. 
The  pronunciation  of  aye,  'ever',  is  [ei],  [ei],  as  distin- 
guished from  ay,  'yes',  which  is  [ai].  The  plural  of  ay  is 
spelled  ayes  but  pronounced  [aiz].  For  again,  against, 
the  usual  pronunciations  are  [o'gen],  [a'genst],  though 
[a'gein],  [a'geinst]  are  occasionally  heard,  probably  be- 
cause of  the  spelling.  For  always  the  standard  pronun- 
ciation is  ['oPweiz]  or  ['ol\ve-z],  but  in  popular  speech  the 
word  often  becomes  ['olwaz],  ['olwiz],  and  sometimes 
['olaz].  For  Isaiah  both  [ai'zeia]  and  [I'zaia]  are  in  current 
use,  the  former  being  the  more  general. 

[c] 

135.  This  is  the  common  sound  of  English  e  in  get 
[get],  ten  [ten],  bend  [bend],  lense  [lenz],  tread  [tred], 
breath  [bre0],  meadow  ['medo],  educate  ['ed3uvke-t],  and 
hosts  of  other  words.  The  current  pronunciation  of 
again,  against,  [o'gen],  [o'genst],  is  occasionally  changed 
under  the  influence  of  spelling  to  [o'ge-n],  [o'ge-nst]  or 
[o'gem],  [o'geinst].  Before  [r]  followed  by  a  vowel,  e  is 
commonly  [e],  as  in  very  ['veri],  perish  ['pen$],  terrible 
['tenbl],  ferry  ['fen],  merit  ['merit].  For  [e]  in  words  of 
this  type  pronounced  [a],  see  §  201.  For  hero,  zero,  Nero, 
etc.,  see  §  168. 

136.  In  a  few  learned  words,  like  serum,  Ceres,  series, 
e  before  r  is  [i]  or  [i],  likewise  cereal,  serial  ['sirial],  serious 
['sinas],  period  ['pinad].    The  spelling  of  bury  ['ben]  is 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       69 

exceptional.  As  the  name  of  a  town  in  England,  Bury  is 
pronounced  ['bjuari].  A  variant  form  yelk  [jelk]  exists 
by  the  side  of  yolk  [jo:k]. 

137.  The  preterite  of  the  verb  eat  is  always  spelled  ate 
and  almost  universally  pronounced  [eit]  in  America,  but 
occasionally  [etj,  this  being  a  generally  current  British 
pronunciation,  see  New  English  Dictionary,  and  Michaelis- 
Jones,  Phonetic  Dictionary,  under  this  word.  Most 
Americans  regard  [et]  as  dialectal.  The  proper  name,  as 
well  as  the  common  noun,  Jenny,  jenny,  is  always  ['dseni] 
in  cultivated  American  speech,  but  ['d^ini]  for  Jenny  is 
good  British  usage.  So  also  ['kimist]  for  chemist  and 
derivatives  is  good  British  usage,  but  in  America  the 
word  is  always  ['kemist]. 

138.  In  epoch  the  stressed  vowel  is  usually  short, 
giving  ['epak],  but  sometimes  in  very  formal  pronuncia- 
tion the  word  becomes  ['iipak].  For  tenet,  tenable  the 
usual  pronunciation  is  ['tenit],  ['tenabl],  occasionally 
['tirnit],  ['tiinabl].  For  deaf  the  standard  pronunciation 
is  [def],  but  [di:f],  which  is  an  older  historical  survival, 
is  often  heard  in  the  popular  dialects.  In  Webster's  day, 
[diif]  was  the  general  pronunciation,  see  Dissertations, 
p.  128.  As  an  adjective  cleanly  is  pronounced  fklenli], 
as  an  adverb,  ['kliinli].  In  pretty,  England,  English,  the 
standard  pronunciation  is  ['priti],  ['irjgland],  ['irjglry], 
the  occasional  pronunciation  with  [e]  being  artificial  and 
due  to  the  spelling. 

139.  For  get  [get]  and  derivatives  popular  English 
frequently  has  [git];  so  also  [t$ist]  for  chest  [t$est],  [jit] 
for  yet  [jet],  [in'stid]  for  instead  [in'sted],  and  similarly 
with  other  words. 


70  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

Before  [g],  in  the  popular  dialects,  [ei]  is  often  heard 
for  standard  [e],  as  in  the  pronunciations  [eig],  [beig], 
[leig],  ['nAt'meig]  for  standard  egg  [eg],  beg  [beg],  leg  [leg], 
nutmeg  ['nAtxmeg],  etc. 

For  keg  [keg]  a  frequent  dialect  form  is  [kseg].  So  also 
yes  [jes]  is  very  often  [jses]  in  popular  pronunciation. 

[«i 

140.  This  symbol  represents  the  long  vowel  commonly 
heard  before  r  in  such  words  as  there  [Sen],  where  [avcij], 
dare  [den],  fair  [feu],  hare,  hair  [hen],  pare,  pair,  pear 
[pen],  lair  [leu].  These  words  may  also  be  heard  with  a 
glide  vowel  before  [i],  [fteiaj],  [mcisj],  [deiai],  etc.,  or 
with  loss  of  the  final  consonant,  [fteie],  [Aieia],  [deia],  etc. 

On  the  organic  difference  between  [e]  and  [ei],  see  above, 
§§  54,  55. 

141.  The  pronunciation  of  chary,  fairy,  hairy,  Mary, 
vary,  wary  is  ['t$ein],  ['fein],  [hem],  ['me in],  ['vein], 
['we in],  which  distinguishes  chary  from  cherry,  fairy 
from  ferry,  hairy  from  Harry  [hsen],  Mary  from  merry, 
marry,  vary  from  very,  wary  from  wherry.  On  words  of 
this  type  pronounced  with  [e],  see  §  133. 

142.  There  is  considerable  variation  among  cultivated 
speakers  in  the  quality  of  the  vowel  in  words  of  the  type 
of  there,  where,  etc.,  degrees  being  present  all  the  way 
from  [ei]  to  [aei],  or  when  the  vowel  is  short  as  in  berry, 
very,  etc.,  from  [e]  to  [ae].  But  pronunciations  like  there 
[tSaeu],  hair  [haeu],  stair  [staeii],  or  very  ['vaen],  terrible 
['taeribl]  are  scarcely  to  be  recommended  for  imitation. 

143.  The  slight  glide  vowel  inserted  before  the  [j]  in 
fair  [feiai],  hair  [heiai],  there  [tSeiaj],  etc.,  when  the  [i] 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  71 

is  not  pronounced  is  often  prolonged  and  even  becomes 
[a],  e.g.,  fair  ['feia]  or  ['fern],  hair  ['heia]  or  [h'eia],  there 
f(5e:9]  or  [r'Se:a].  The  vowel  [a]  in  such  pronunciations 
often  receives  a  fairly  heavy  stress.  These  latter  usages 
are  nowhere  general  in  America,  though  sometimes 
cultivated  in  imitation  of  what  is  taken  to  be  Eastern 
American  or  British  usage. 

144.  In  words  compounded  with  aero-,  as  in  aeroplane, 
aeronaut,  aerostat,  etc.,  the  standard  formal  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  first  syllable  is  ['eiara-]  or  ['eioro-].  But  ['eira-J 
is  quite  generally  used.  The  final  vowel  of  the  syllable 
may  also  be  heard  as  [o]  in  careful  speech.  The  pronun- 
ciation [reri8-]  is  popular  and  dialectal. 

145.  In  were  the  common  pronunciation  is  [w9j]  or 
[wai],  though  the  pronunciation  [wen],  also  [wseu],  is 
sometimes  cultivated  in  precise  speech. 

M 

146.  The  vowel  [o]  is  a  sound  of  wide  occurrence  in 
unstressed  position,  and  is  the  sound  which  vowels  in 
general  tend  to  become  when,  as  in  rapid  speech,  they 
are  somewhat  obscured.  It  occurs  in  all  positions  in  the 
word,  initially,  medially  and  finally,  e.g.,  about  [a'baut], 
finally  ['fainali],  zebra  ['zibra],  Cuba  [kjubo],  sofa  ['sofa], 
a  man  [a'.nsen],  Iceland  ['aistend],  etc.  Certain  words 
in  which  standard  speech  retains  a  relatively  clear  vowel 
in  final  unstressed  syllables,  occur  with  this  obscure  vowel 
in  dialect  speech,  e.g.,  dialect  yellow fjela],  potato [pe'teita], 
tomato  [ta'meita],  piano  [pi'aeno],  window  ['windo],  fellow 
['fela],  thorough  ['0Aro],  always  ['olwaz]. 

147.  In  careless  and  rapid  speech  some  speakers  have 
a  tendency  to  omit  [a]  where  cultivated  speech  retains  it. 


72  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

This  is  especially  noticeable  when  [a]  is  preceded  by  a 
vowel  or  [r],  as  in  poem,  in  popular  pronunciation  [po:m], 
in  standard  speech  ['poiem],  or  ['poiam]  or  ['ponm],  see 
§  173;  moral,  popularly  ['mojl],  in  standard  speech  ['moral]; 
towel,  popularly  [taul],  in  standard  speech  ['taual];  quar- 
rel, popularly  ['kwoil],  in  standard  speech  ['kworal];  diary, 
popularly  [Main],  in  standard  speech  ['daian];  diamond, 
popularly  ['daimand],  in  standard  speech  ['daiamandj; 
real,  really,  popularly  [rid],  ['riili],  in  standard  speech 
friial],  ['riialij,  sometimes  also  ['rial],  ['riali];  cruel,  popu- 
larly [kruil],  in  standard  speech  ['kruial];  violet,  popu- 
larly [Vailat],  ['vailat],  in  standard  speech  ['vaialit],  very 
formally  ['vaiolet]. 

The  pronunciation  of  deal,  seal,  peal,  etc.,  as  [did], 
[sill],  [pi:l]  is  standard,  the  spelling  ea  in  these  words  being 
a  representation  of  what  is  historically  a  simple  vowel, 
whereas  in  real  the  spelling  ea,  which  looks  the  same,  is 
of  entirely  different  origin.  It  is  derived  from  an  origi- 
nally dissyllabic  word,  with  the  syllabic  break  between 
the  two  vowels,  and  standard  speech  continues  to  maintain 
the  word  as  a  dissyllable. 

148.  The  final  unstressed  syllable  of  words  ending  in  a 
is  pronounced  [a]  in  standard  speech,  but  frequently  [i]  in 
popular  speech,  as  in  opera  ['apara],  era  ['iira]  or  ['ira],  ex- 
tra ['ekstra],  America  [a'menka],  Noah  ['noia],  Martha 
['mau0a],  etc.,  pronounced  ['apn],  ['iri],['ekstri],[a'menki], 
['non],  ['maufli],  etc.  For  Iowa  the  common  pronuncia- 
tion is  ['aiawa],  dialectally  sometimes  ['aiawi]. 

149.  For  cupola  ['kjupala],  popular  pronunciation  fre- 
quently has  a  transposition  of  the  unstressed  vowels, 
giving  ['kjupavlo].  In  cocoa  ['koiko]  the  final  vowel  is 
silent;  the  word  is  a  metathesized  form  of  cacao,  but  this 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIK   OCCURRENCE  73 

original  form  of  the  word  is  now  used  only  in  scientific 
writing.  When  compounded  with  -nut,  the  word  is  fre- 
quently spelled  coco-,  as  in  coco-nut  ['ko:ko-ynAt].  The 
word  Curasao  Pkjura'saio],  derived  from  the  name  of  a 
Dutch  island  in  the  Carribean,  is  commonly  metathesized 
into  curacoa  [vkjura'so:a]  or  [vkjura'sou]. 

150.  As  an  inflectional  ending,  e  in  the  ending  -es  is 
always  silent  when  the  s  is  voiceless,  as  in  rites,  writes 
(third  singular  of  the  verb)  [raits],  likes  [laiks],  rates 
[rests],  etc.,  and  it  is  silent  also  when  the  s  is  voiced,  ex- 
cept when  the  syllable  -es  is  preceded  by  [s],  [z],  [$]  or  [3], 
in  which  case  e  [9]  is  pronounced,  as  in  pieces  [piisaz], 
prizes  [praizaz],  wishes  ['wijaz],  stages  [steid3az]. 

151.  Between  [1]  and  a  succeeding  [m]  a  vowel  [a]  is 
sometimes  present  in  popular  speech  which  does  not 
appear  in  standard  speech,  as  in  elm  [elm],  film  [film], 
realm  [relm],  etc.,  pronounced  ['dam],  ['Mam],  ['relam], 
etc.  So  also  ['starlit],  [aefla'letik]  for  athlete  ['aefl'litj, 
athletic  [sefl'letik]. 

152.  Before  [1]  or  [1],  and  after  a  vowel,  a  slight  glide 
[a],  [9]  is  sometimes  present,  as  in  such  pronunciations  as 
stole  ['stoial],  four  [fo:9j],  milk  [mialk],  dart  [da:9jt],  etc., 
but  this  sound  is  so  slight  in  standard  pronunciation  that 
it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  represent  it  phonetically, 
see  §§  160,  167.  It  is  often  exaggerated  in  the  speech  of 
young  children,  who  prolong  also  the  preceding  vowel. 

153.  Before  [r],  intervocalic,  a  very  distinct  [9]  is 
present  in  British  speech,  especially  noticeable  to  American 
ears  when  the  vowel  preceding  [r]  is  [1],  [e]  or  [ai],  as  in 
period  ['piariad],  peeress  ['piaris],  parent  ['pearant],  miry 
['maiari],  Byron  ['baiaran];  but  this  [a]  is  scarcely  ever 


74  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

heard  in  America,  the  words  cited  being  pronounced 
['piriad],  ['pins]  or  ['pires],  ['pserant]  or  ['perant],  ['main], 
['bairan].  In  the  adjective  form  of  fire  [faiai],  which  is 
spelled  fiery,  a  pronunciation  ['faiari]  may  be  heard,  but 
also  ['fain].    But  wiry  from  wire  ['waiai]  is  always  ['wain]. 

M 

154.  This  symbol  stands  for  the  short  inverted  vowel 
sound,  which  is  to  be  clearly  distinguished  from  [a].  The 
sound  appears  in  stressed  and  unstressed  syllables,  and  is 
represented  in  conventional  spelling  by  various  vowel 
letters  before  r  final  or  followed  by  a  consonant,  as  in 
bird  [bajd],  burr  [bsi],  sir  [sai],  fir,  fur  [far],  heard  [haid], 
person  ['paisan],  serpent  ['saipant],  worthy  ['waitSi], 
myrtle  ['maitl],  etc.  The  vowel  is  normally  short,  but  may 
be  prolonged  in  exceptional  instances,  as  in  the  somewhat 
exotic  word  myrrh  [mai]  or  [man].  For  iron,  tired,  hired, 
etc.,  see  §  304. 

155.  When  [i]  is  not  pronounced  before  the  consonant 
in  bird,  heard,  person,  etc.,  the  vowel  is  usually  [ai]. 
When  final  [j]  is  not  pronounced,  it  often  leaves  a  weak 
[9]  as  its  survival,  burr  [daio],  fir,  fur  [fAia],  etc.  Final  r 
in  unstressed  syllables  when  not  pronounced  is  preceded 
by  [a],  as  in  never  ['neva],  feather  ['fetSa],  etc.  In  affected 
speech  this  vowel  sometimes  becomes  [a],  see  §  143. 

156.  For  girl  the  current  pronunciation  is  [gajl]  or 
[gAil],  but  [geul],  [gse.il],  [gul]  are  sometimes  heard  and 
are  often  cultivated  as  refined  pronunciations. 

157.  For  courteous,  courtezan  the  usual  pronuncia- 
tion is  ['kaitias],  ['kaitazan],  but  for  courtier,  ['kojtiai], 
['koitjaj]  are  more  general. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       75 

158.  For  [a]  of  the  standard  speech  in  words  containing 
[a]  followed  by  a  consonant,  in  New  York  and  its  vicinity 
a  diphthong  is  heard,  commonly  represented  in  dialect 
stories  by  the  spelling  oi,  e.g.,  thoid,  ' third,'  foist,  'first/ 
boid,  'bird.'  The  phonetic  elements  of  this  diphthong  are 
usually  [a]  followed  by  [1].  This  pronunciation  has  not 
made  its  way  into  cultivated  usage.1 

159.  For  very,  terrible,  syrup,  etc.,  pronounced  [Van], 
['tajibl],  ['sarap],  etc.,  see  §  201.  The  pronunciation  of 
[a]  for  [a]  before  [r]  followed  by  a  vowel  in  unstressed 
syllables  is  to  be  avoided,  e.g.,  history  ['histari]  pronounced 
['histari]. 

160.  Between  [ai],  [au]  and  a  succeeding  final  [1],  a 
vowel  [a]  is  regularly  present  in  accented  words,  hire 
and  higher  ['haiaj]  being  homonyms;  so  also  flour,  flower 
['flauaj]  are  homonymous.  Not  infrequently  a  slovenly 
kind  of  pronunciation  is  heard  in  which  this  [a]  is  omitted 
and  the  preceding  diphthong  is  reduced  to  [ai],  flower, 
flour  being  pronounced  [flan],  fire  pronounced  [fan],  as 
though  it  were  the  same  as  far,  our,  hour  pronounced  [au]. 
The  word  our  in  unstressed  position  in  colloquial  speech 
is  very  commonly  [au],  so  commonly  that  perhaps  one 
cannot  characterize  it  as  slovenly.  But  its  phonetic 
form  is  due  entirely  to  the  fact  that  it  is  slightly  stressed. 
In  stressed  position  the  diphthong  [au]  is  never  [as]  in 
standard  speech. 

[iUHfii] 

161.  The  vowel  [i]  is  heard  only  in  polysyllables,  like 
expediency  [eks'pidiansi],  where  the  stress  on  the  accented 
syllable  is  comparatively  light,  or  in  unstressed  syllables, 

1  See  Babbitt,  Dialect  Notes,  I,  463. 


76  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

as  in  eternal  [i'tamal],  economy  [i'kanami],  oesophagus 
[i'scifogos].  The  half -long  vowel  may  be  recognized  in 
compounds,  like  tea-table  ['ti-vte*bl],  and  the  long  vowel 
in  words  containing  full  stress,  as  in  tea  [tii],  he  [hi:], 
key,  quay  [ki:],  deed  [diid],  bean  [bi:n],  priest  [priist], 
convene  [kon'viin],  eagle  ['iigl],  Egypt  ['iidsipt]. 

162.  For  sleek,  creek,  clique  the  standard  pronuncia- 
tions are  [sliik],  [kriik],  [kliik],  though  [slik],  [krik], 
[klik]  are  widely  current  in  familiar  colloquial  use,  and 
[slik],  in  the  sense  'cunning/  'sly,'  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  into  general  use.  The  pronunciation  [fa'tig]  for 
fatigue  [fa'tiig]  is  not  cultivated  usage.  For  amenable  the 
standard  pronunciation  is  [a'mimabl],  but  for  amenity 
almost  always  [a'meniti],  though  sometimes  [a'miiniti]. 

163.  In  words  of  Greek  origin  commonly  spelled  ae,  as 
in  ^schylus,  ^sculapius,  aesthetic,  anapaest,  the  usual 
pronunciation  in  America  is  ['eskilos],  [eskju'leipias], 
[es'fletik],  ['senapest],  but  [iis-]  in  England  and  not  in- 
frequently also  in  America.  ^Esop  is  always  ['ii^sap],  and 
the  spelling  ce  is  usually  [i]  or  [i:],  as  in  oesophagus  [i'sa- 
fogos],  (Enone  [i'noini],  oecumenical  [ikju'menikl],  (Edipus 
['i:dip9s],  though  pronunciations  with  [e],  as  in  fedipas], 
[ekju'menikl],  are  also  heard. 

164.  For  Elizabethan  both  [aliza'biiflan]  and  [aliza- 
^betfan]  occur.  For  scenic  the  common  pronunciation  is 
['senik],  though  ['simik],  which  is  the  more  usual  British 
pronunciation,  and  is  of  course  supported  by  the  analogy 
of  scene  [si:n],  is  sometimes  heard.  For  fetid,  fetish 
both  ['firtid],  ['fiiti$]  and  ['fetid],  ['feti$]  are  current,  and 
for  leisure  both  ['li  139.1]  and  [lc3aij.  For  either,  neither 
the  general  pronunciation  is  ['iiftaj],   ['niitSai],  but  oc- 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       77 

casionally  ['ai<5aj],  ['naiSaj]  are  heard,  often  as  a  conscious 
refined  pronunciation.  It  is  popular  and  general  no- 
where in  America.  For  inveigle  the  usual  pronunciation 
is  [rn'viigl],  but  sometimes  also  [m'veigl].  For  penal  the 
pronunciation  is  ['pirnol],  for  penalize  either  ['pimolaiz] 
or  ['penalaiz],  for  penalty  always  ['penal ti]. 

165.  Words  containing  the  prefix  pre-  as  a  stressed 
syllable  usually  have  the  pronunciation  [pri-]  when  the 
syllable  is  logically  important,  as  in  clear  compounds  like 
prehistoric  ['prihis'tonk],  predigested  ['pridai'd3estid], 
prefix  ['prifiks],  prepay  ppri'pei],  also  in  a  few  somewhat 
learned  words,  the  etymological  origins  of  which  are  still 
felt,  as  in  precinct  [rprixsirjkt],  prefect  ['prTfekt],  prelude 
['prriuid],  also  sometimes  ['prePuid].  Otherwise  the  syl- 
lable is  usually  pronounced  [pre-],  though  custom  is  not 
completely  uniform,  some  words  like  predecessor,  pre- 
dilection, premature,  presentation  being  pronounced 
either  [pre-]  or  [pri-].  The  pronunciation  with  [pre-]  is 
the  more  common,  and  in  some  words,  e.g.,  predicate, 
preference,  prejudice,  preparation,  preposition,  preterite, 
it  is  the  only  one  in  good  use. 

166.  In  the  ending  -itis,  as  in  appendicitis,  neuritis, 
phlebitis,  meningitis,  etc.,  both  [-iitas]  and  [-aitas]  occur; 
also  angina  [aen'dsiina],  [aen'dsama],  better  ['sendsma], 
Argentine  ['aid3anvtim]  or  ['aid38nxtain],  adamantine 
[seda'maenHim]  or  [aeda'maen^tarn].  For  oblique  the  more 
usual  pronunciation  is  [o'bliik],  but  also,  less  frequently, 
[o'blaik]. 

167.  Before  [r],  [j],  [i]  is  commonly  lowered  to  [i]  and 
a  glide  vowel  sometimes  inserted  between  [i]  and  [r],  [j], 
as  in  cereal,  serial  ['sioriol],  hear  [hiaj],  hearing  ['hiarirj]. 


78  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

pier,  peer  [pi9j],  tier,  tear  [tiaj];  but  some  speakers  tend 
to  preserve  a  clear  [i] -sound  in  a  few  words,  usually  of 
learned  character,  as  in  eery  ['ion],  era  ['iara],  query 
['kwiari],  series  ['siariz]  or  ['siariz].  So  also  dreary, 
weary  are  sometimes  pronounced  ['driari],  ['wiari].  This 
glide  vowel  before  [r],  [a]  is  often  not  present  at  all  in 
American  speech,  and  is  in  general  much  less  marked  as  a 
characteristic  of  American  than  of  British  speech. 

168.  In  hero,  Nero,  zero  a  clear  [i]-vowel  is  generally 
maintained,  giving  ['mYro],  ['mYro],  ['ziiVo],  but  many 
speakers  lower  the  vowel  to  [i],  as  in  ['hiVo],  fnixro], 
[Vro]. 

W 

169.  This  is  the  short  sound  commonly  current  in  sit 
[sit],  mission  ['mi$an],  timid  ['timid],  ink  [ink],  rich 
[nt$],  etc.  In  stressed  syllables  it  is  generally  written  i, 
though  also  y  in  lyric  ['link],  syllable  ['silabl],  synagogue 
['sinagog],  and  some  others. 

170.  For  i,  y  followed  by  r  and  a  vowel,  the  standard 
pronunciation  is  [i],  as  in  dirigible  ['dind3ibl],  miracle 
['mirakl],  mirror  ['mrrai],  sirup,  syrup  ['srrap],  syringe 
[/sinnd3],  also  [si'rmd3],  tyranny  ['trrani],  virile  [Vinl], 
also  [Vairil],  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  cases  in  which 
i,  y  is  pronounced  [ai],  as  in  gyrate,  pirate,  siren,  tirade, 
tyrant,  virile,  virus.  On  i,  y  followed  by  r  and  a  vowel 
pronounced  [a],  [9]  in  popular  speech,  see  §  201. 

171.  For  been  the  normal  pronunciation  is  [bin], 
though  [bim]  is  sometimes  heard  as  a  precise  or  consciously 
cultivated  pronunciation.  For  breeches,  breeching  the 
usual  pronunciation  is  ['brit^az],  ['bntSirj],  but  a  spelling- 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       79 

pronunciation  ['briitjaz],  ['briit$in]  is  sometimes  cultivated. 
In  busy  fbizi],  business  ['biznis],  the  spelling  u  is  ex- 
ceptional for  [i]. 

172.  There  is  a  distinctly  audible  difference  between 
stressed  and  unstressed  [i],  as,  for  example,  in  the  two 
syllables  of  pity,  city,  which  for  lack  of  a  separate  symbol 
for  each  sound,  we  represent  by  ['piti],  ['siti].  The  same 
applies  to  initial  unstressed  syllables,  as  in  desist  [di'zist], 
begin  [bi'gin],  initial  [i'ni$al],  etc.  The  unstressed  [i]  is 
more  relaxed,  as  one  would  expect  it  to  be,  than  stressed 
[i],  and  in  a  phonetic  transcription  of  greater  precision 
than  the  one  here  employed,  each  sound  would  have  its 
own  symbol. 

173.  In  unstressed  syllables,  this  sound  occurs  for  a,  e, 
i  and  u  of  the  conventional  spelling,  though  usage  in 
many  words  varies  widely,  some  speakers  pronouncing  [i], 
some  [e]  and  some  the  obscure  vowel  [a]  : 

(1)  before  the  stressed  syllable,  as  in  begin  [bi'gin]  or 
[ba'gm],  debate  [di'beit]  or  [da'beit],  decide  [di'said]  or 
[da'said],  engage  [rn'geid3]  or  [en'ge^],  except  [ik'sept] 
or  [ek'sept],  elect  [I'lekt],  [e'lekt]  or  [a'lekt]. 

(2)  after  the  stressed  syllable,  as  in  the  preterites  of 
verbs,  added  ['sedid],  [Wed]  or  ['aedad];  disgusted  [dis- 
'gAstid],  [dis'gAsted]  or  [dis'gAstad] ;  in  a  variety  of  nouns 
and  adjectives  of  different  endings,  as  in  naked  ['neikid], 
['neiked]  or  fneikad];  sonnet  ['sanit],  ['sanet]  or  ['sanat]; 
rabbit  ['raebit],  ['raebet]  or  ['raebat];  prelate  ['prelit]  (very 
formally  ['prelet]),  ['prelet]  or  ['prelat];  minute  (noun) 
['mmit],  ['minet]  or  ['minat];  honest  ['anist],  ['anest]  or 
['anast];  lettuce  ['letis],  [letes]  or  ['letas];  palace  ['paelis], 
['paeles]    or    [paelas];    goodness    ['gudnis],    ['gudnes]    or 


80  STANDARD  ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

['gudnas];  riches  ['rrt$iz],  ['nt$ez]  or  ['nt$az] ;  poem  ['ponm], 
['poiem]  or  ['poiam];  vowel  ['vauil],  ['vauel]  or  ['vaual]; 
college  ['kalids],  ['kaled3]  (very  formally  ['kaled3]);  courage 
['kArids],  ['kAredsJ;  usage  ['ju:sid3],  [/juised3];  damage 
['dsemicls],  ['daemed^];  manage  ['msenid3],  ['msenedsJ; 
orange  [Grinds],  ['orend3]  or  [brands] . 

"Philadelphia,  New  York  City,  and  some  parts  of  the 
West  and  South,"  says  Grandgent,1  often  substitute  [a] 
for  [i]  in  final  syllables,  as  in  ['gudnas]  for  ['gudnis], 
['anast]  for  ['anist],  I've  got  it  [aiv  'gat  at]  for  [aiv  'gat  it], 
j'pselas]  for  ['pselis],  but  "in  the  rest  of  the  country  this 
pronunciation  is  regarded  as  extremely  vulgar."  Tests 
which  the  writer  has  applied  to  speakers  from  regions 
here  excepted  show  that  the  statement  as  to  the  vulgarity 
of  [a]  in  final  syllables  is  exaggerated  and  does  not  now 
apply.  Such  pronunciations  as  ['pselas],  ['anast]  are  cur- 
rent throughout  the  country,  and  cannot  now  be  de- 
scribed as  extremely  vulgar  by  any  standards  generally 
accepted. 

174.  For  adobe,  prairie  the  standard  pronunciation 
is  [a'doibi],  ['pre in].  For  Cincinnati  both  [sinsa'naeti]  and 
[sinsa'naeta]  occur,  the  former  being  locally  and  generally 
the  more  common  pronunciation.  For  final  a  [a]  pro- 
nounced [i]  in  popular  speech,  see  above,  §  148.  The 
desire  to  avoid  this  popular  pronunciation  of  final  a  [a]  as 
[i]  at  all  hazards  sometimes  leads  speakers  to  pronounce 
final  [a]  when  cultivated  standard  speech  has  [i],  and  this 
probably  explains  a  pronunciation  like  [sinsa'naeta].  So 
also  occasionally  [mi'zura]  for  standard  Missouri  [mi'zuri]^ 
and  even  ['preira]  for  ['pre  in]  has  been  observed  (Sturte* 

1  Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  II,  449  (1895) ;  see  also  Dialect  Notes,  I, 
319-323  (1894). 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       81 

vant,  Linguistic  Change,  p.  83). l  For  Ypsilanti  [ipsi- 
'laenti]  occasionally  [ipsi'lsenta]  is  heard.  It  may  be  that 
the  pronunciation  of  words  like  Cincinnati,  Missouri, 
Ypsilanti  has  been  affected  by  the  analogy  of  many 
other  place  names  like  Nebraska,  Montana,  Nevada,  etc., 
which  regularly  have  [a]  for  the  final  vowel.  Final  un- 
stressed y,  both  in  common  and  proper  nouns,  is  always 
[i],  as  in  heavy,  busy,  Albany,  Schenectady,  etc. 

175.  For  jaundice  [;d3ondis]  the  popular  dialects  often 
have  ['dsondajz],  ['d38endajz].  For  Italian  popular  speech 
commonly  has  [%ai'taeljan],  but  standard  speech  only 
[I'taeljan]. 

[o],  [<>•],  [oi] 

176.  This  vowel  is  heard  as  a  short  sound,  sometimes 
as  the  stressed  vowel  of  polysyllables,  as  in  locomo- 
tive pioka'motiv],  connotative  [ka'notatrv],  in  unstressed 
syllables,  as  in  obedient  [o'biidiant],  approbation  [aepro- 
'bei$an],  yellow  ['jelo],  window  ['windo],  piano  [pi'aeno], 
and  in  secondarily  stressed  syllables  when  the  vowel  may 
be  short  or  half-long,  as  in  the  compounds  dough-nut 
['do-'nAt],  tow-path  ['to-xpae0],  go-cart  ['go-'kcut],  etc. 
On  the  weakening  of  unstressed  [o]  to  [a],  see  above,  §  146. 

177.  When  the  sound  is  fully  stressed  and  long,  and 
especially  when  it  is  final,  it  tends  to  become  diphthongal, 
starting  with  [o]  and  closing  with  [u],  as  in  dough,  doe 
[dou],  toe,  tow  [tou],  flow,  floe  [flou],  chateau  [$£e'tou], 
etc.  Before  consonants,  as  in  rote,  rode,  roll,  etc.,  the 
diphthongal  quality  of  the  vowel  is  always  less  marked 

1  Though  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  F.  L.  Mott  that  ['preira]  is  a 
pioneer  pronunciation  for  prairie,  in  Iowa,  in  the  speech  of  persons 
who  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  been  influenced  by  refined  analogies. 


82  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

and  often  not  present  at  all.  This  sound  is  much  less 
diphthongal  in  American  than  in  British  speech.  In  the 
latter  a  great  variety  of  diphthongal  shadings  occur,  some 
of  them  familiar  in  the  exaggerated  representations  of 
Englishmen  and  their  speech  on  the  American  stage.  In 
the  speech  of  many,  perhaps  of  most,  Americans  there  is 
scarcely  any  trace  of  diphthongal  quality  in  the  sound, 
which  may  in  most  instances  be  represented  simply  as 
[o:]or[o-].    See  §218. 

178.  In  substantive  compounds  with  pro-,  the  prefix, 
when  stressed,  in  some  words  is  regularly  pronounced 
['pro-],  as  in  probate,  proceeds,  profile,  programme,  prolix 
['proliks]  or  [pra'liks],  prologue,  pronoun,  protest;  in  others, 
regularly  [a],  or  sometimes  [o],  as  in  problem,  project, 
prophet,  prospect,  proverb;  and  in  still  others,  the  pro- 
nunciation varies  between  [o]  and  [a],  the  latter  being 
the  more  general,  as  in  process,  produce,  product,  prog- 
ress, provost. 

179.  For  sloth,  slothful   the  standard  pronunciation 

is  [sloi0],  ['slo:0fal],  but  a  variant  pronunciation  [sloi0], 
['shiflfal]  is  not  infrequent.  The  pronunciation  of  loam 
in  standard  speech  is  [loim],  but  frequently  [lu:m]  in 
dialect  speech.  An  archaic  spelling  shew,  shew-bread 
is  sometimes  met  with  for  [$oi],  ['$oi-vbred].  The  proper 
name  Polish  is  ['po:lr$],  following  the  analogy  of  Pole 
[poil],  but  the  verb  polish  is  ['pah$].  For  bowie-  in  the 
compound  bowie-knife  both  ['bou-]  and  ['bun-]  occur. 
The  usual  standard  pronunciation  for  shone  is  Rom]  or 
Roun],  but  [$on],  [Join],  even  [$An]  are  occasionally  heard. 
The  pronunciation  of  whole  as  [IiaI]  is  dialectal. 

180.  In  Eastern  New  England,  a  number  of  words 
which  elsewhere  have  a  long  vowel  are  pronounced  with 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       83 

a  short  [o]-vowel  which  is  slightly  more  fronted  than  the 
ordinary  vowel,  giving  a  mid  half-front  tense  rounded 
vowel.  "This  vowel  is  used  by  educated  New  England 
speakers  in  about  fifty  common  words  and  their  deriva- 
tives, and  it  certainly  prevails  in  the  cultivated  usage 
of  this  region  in  Polk,  polka,  whole,  and  probably  in  both, 
folks,  Holmes,  most,  only,  and  some  others."1 

[0] 

181.  This  sound  is  a  short  vowel,  and  may  be  best 
observed  in  polysyllables,  where  it  may  be  stressed,  as  in 
auditory  fodiHon],  Audubon  ['odubon],  or  in  unstressed 
syllables,  as  in  audacious  [o'deijos],  authentic  [o'flentik], 
automatic  [oto'msetik],  etc. 

182.  It  occurs  also  with  some  speakers  in  many 
syllables  written  o,  as  in  hot,  not,  nod,  log,  soft,  moss,  on, 
etc.,  or  a  after  w,  as  in  water,  watch,  etc.,  but  usage 
varies  in  the  value  which  it  gives  to  the  vowel  in  these 
words,  see  above,  §§  110,  111,  and  the  vowel  also  varies 
in  length  from  short  to  half-long  or  long,  in  some  words,  as 
in  soft  [soft],  moss  [mos],  dog  [dog],  etc.,  pronounced  also 
[soift],  [mo:s],  [doig],  or  even  dragged  out  in  popular 
speech  until  they  are  over-long. 

183.  In  words  written  o  before  [rj],  the  customary 
pronunciation  is  [o],  as  in  long  [Ion],  song  [son],  throng 
[0rorj],  wrong  [rorj],  but  occasional  speakers  have  [a]  in- 
stead of  [o].  The  pronunciation  [loirj],  [so in],  [0ro:rj], 
[roirj],  etc.,  is  heard  only  in  dialect  speech. 

1  Grandgent,  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association, 
Vol.  VII  (New  Series),  p.  217  (1899).  This  vowel  is  dialectally 
common  in  Eastern  New  England  in  many  words  like  road,  coat, 
boat,  colt,  post,  etc. 


84  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

184.  For  squalor  the  usual  pronunciation  is  ['skwotoi], 
though  ['skweiloj]  is  sometimes  heard.  For  swollen  the 
common  form  is  ['swoton],  but  very  frequently  also 
['swoilan]. 

[a:] 

185.  This  sound  occurs  in  many  syllables  under  full 
stress,  as  in  law  [loi],  draw  [droi],  taut,  taught  [to it], 
thought  [0o it],  talk  [toik],  naught  [no it],  all  [oil],  salt 
[so :lt],  fault  [foilt],  Paul  [poil],  etc.;  also  in  dissyllables 
like  augur  ['oigoi],  aural  ['oirel],  author  ['oi09i],  audit 
['oidit];  and  in  compounds,  Hke  strawberry  ['stro^ben], 
chalk-line  ['t$o-kxlain],  in  which  the  vowel  may  be  long 
or  half-long.  On  the  organic  difference  between  [o]  and 
[oi],  see  above,  §§  62,  63. 

For  sauce  (noun),  saucy  the  standard  pronunciation 
is  [so is],  ['soisi],  but  in  the  sense  'impertinent  speech/ 
'impertinent,'  popular  pronunciation  commonly  has 
[saes],  ['ssesi]. 

186.  In  words  of  the  type  of  daunt,  flaunt,  gaunt, 
gauntlet,  haunt,  launch,  taunt,  the  common  pronuncia- 
tion is  [doint],  [floint],  [goint],  etc.,  but  some  speakers  say 
[daint],  [flaint],  [gaint],  and  for  some  words,  as  in  [haent], 
[laent$],  a  pronunciation  with  [33]  or  [331]  is  current  in 
dialect  speech.  For  laundry  the  current  pronunciation 
is  ['loindri],  with  an  occasional  variant  pronunciation 
['laindri].  For  Laura  the  usual  pronunciation  is  ['to  ire], 
but  also  sometimes  ['la ire]. 

187.  The  pronunciation  of  caught,  bought,  talk,  taught, 
etc.,  with  [a-]  or  [ai],  is  current  in  some  regions  locally, 
but  is  not  heard  in  standard  cultivated  English.  So  also 
the  pronunciations  ['daitoj],  ['slaitoj]  for  daughter  ['doitaj], 
slaughter  ['sloitoj]  are  provincialisms. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       85 

188.  A  number  of  Indian  proper  names,  in  secondarily 
stressed  syllables  written  aw,  ah,  a,  have  [oi],  as  in  Choctaw 
['t$akvto:],  Kenesaw  ['keno^soi],  Utah  ['juvtoi],  Altamaha 
['seltomo^hoi],  Omaha  ['omaxhoi],  Ottawa  ['atoVo:],  etc. 

189.  Before  [j]  followed  by  a  consonant,  when  the  [i] 
is  not  pronounced,  o  is  pronounced  [ox],  as  in  corn  [ko:n], 
force  [fois],  port  [po:t],  etc.  But  the  pronunciation  [hois] 
for  horse,  spelled  hoss  in  dialect  stories,  is  commonly 
regarded  as  illiterate  and  dialectal,  though  here,  as  in 
many  instances,  it  is  really  the  visual  and  not  the  audible 
form  of  the  word  that  is  objected  to.  When  the  [j]  is 
pronounced  the  preceding  vowel  is  only  half-long  or  short. 

190.  Before  [r]  followed  by  a  vowel,  the  usual  pronun- 
ciation of  o  is  [o-]  or  [oi],  as  in  glory  ['glo-ri],  story  ['sto-n], 
tory  fto-ri],  oral  [Vral],  not  distinguished  in  pronuncia- 
tion from  aural,  moral  ['mo-rol].  But  some  speakers, 
retaining  an  older  pronunciation  probably  under  the 
influence  of  spelling,  in  at  least  some  of  these  words  have 
[o'l  or  [o:],  as  in  glory  ['glo-ri],  story  ['sto-n],  tory  ['toTil, 
oral  ['o-ralj,  etc. 

191.  Before  [j]  final,  o  (ou,  oo,  oa)  is  pronounced  [o-] 
or  [ox],  as  in  store  [stou],  more  [mou],  pore,  pour  [po-j], 
fore,  four,  for  [fou],  door  [dou],  floor  [flou],  roar  [rou]> 
sore,  soar  [sou].  See  §  197.  These  words  might  be 
written  also  ['sto-9j],  etc.,  though  with  most  speakers  the 
glide  vowel  is  very  slight. 

The  preposition  for  is  often  [foj]  in  rapid  speech,  written 
fur  in  dialect  stories. 

[u],  [ui] 

192.  This  sound  is  of  wide  occurrence,  both  as  long 
and  short.    As  a  long,  it  tends  to  become  diphthongal. 


86  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

[uu],  but  this  pronunciation  for  what  is  commonly  [ui] 
is  not  general  enough  in  American  speech  to  call  for  fre- 
quent representation.  The  quantity  of  the  sound  varies 
according  to  its  surrounding  from  short  to  half-long  and 
long.  Instances  of  [u]  occur  in  polysyllables  like  re- 
crudescence [rikru'desans],  altruistic  [aeltru'istik],  abso- 
lutely ['sebs^lutli],  also  ['sebs^ljutli],  Lusitania  [lusi'te-nja], 
etc.  When  the  sound  is  long  it  is  commonly  represented 
in  conventional  spelling  by  oo,  as  in  boot  [buit],  cool  [kuil], 
soon  [sum],  spool  [spud],  but  also  ou,  as  in  group  [gruip], 
soup  [suip],  troupe  [truip];  u,  as  in  dune  [dum],  lunar 
['luinaj],  rule  [mil],  rune  [rum];  o,  as  in  do  [dui],  to  [tui]; 
ui  as  in  bruit  [bruit],  fruit  [fruit],  suit  [suit],  also  [sjuit], 
etc. 

193.  In  some  words  usage  varies  widely  between  [u] 
and  [u],  the  resulting  groups  being  very  unsystematic. 
All  speakers  say  goose  [guis],  mood  [muid],  moon  [mum], 
for  example,  and  all  say  book  [buk],  foot  [fut],  good  [gud], 
shook  Ruk],  stood  [stud].  But  in  the  following  words, 
which  is  not  an  exhaustive  list,  usage  varies  between  [u], 
long  or  short,  and  [u],  and  in  popular  use,  one  or  two 
words  have  [a]  :  aloof,  butcher,  boot,  broom,  coop,  Cooper, 
food,  groom,  hoof,  hoop,  Hooper,  nook,  proof,  rood,  roof, 
rook,  room,  rooster,  root,  soon,  soot,  spook,  spoon,  woof.1 

Of  these  words,  according  to  the  writer's  observation, 
the  following  prevailingly  have  [ui]:  aloof,  boot,  broom, 
food,  groom,  proof,  roof,  rood,  room,  rooster,  root,  soon, 
spook,  spoon,  woof;  the  following  prevailingly  have  [u]: 

1  The  first  two  words  in  this  list  are  included  on  the  authority  of 
Grandgent,  Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  II,  457,  but  for  aloof  the  writer 
has  heard  only  [a'luif],  and  for  butcher  only  [t>ut$9i],  or  ['bu:t$a.i]  so 
rarely  that  this  form  of  the  word  seems  scarcely  to  be  regarded  as  a 
cm-rent  American  pronunciation. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       87 

butcher,  coop,  Cooper,  hoof,  hoop,  Hooper,  nook,  rook, 
soot  (also  in  popular  pronunciation  [sAt]). 

The  pronunciations  boot  [but],  broom  [brum],  food 
[fud],  soon  [sun],  spoon  [spun],  etc.,  for  words  in  the  first 
group  must  be  characterized  as  local  or  provincial,  but 
coop  [ku:p],  Cooper  ['kuipaj],  hoof  [huif],  hoop  [huip], 
etc.,  for  words  in  the  second  group,  are  supported  by  the 
usage  of  many  cultivated  speakers,  whose  pronunciation 
is  probably  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  spelling. 

On  the  differences  of  usage  between  [u:]  and  [ju],  see 
§§  229-231. 

194.  For  acoustic  both  [a'kurstik]  and  [o'kaustik]  are 
in  common  use,  the  former  being  perhaps  the  more  gen- 
eral. For  bouquet  the  standard  pronunciation  is  [bu'kei], 
the  pronunciation  [bo'kei]  or  ['bo-Nkei]  being  old-fashioned 
or  rustic.  For  brooch  both  [bru:t$]  and  [broit$]  occur. 
For  route  [ru:t],  tour  [tun],  [tuiai],  wound  [wurnd],  the 
popular  dialects  often  have  [rout],  [tauaj],  [waund]. 
The  spelling  of  zoology,  aided  by  the  abbreviation  Zoo, 
results  sometimes  in  a  pronunciation  [zu'atedsi],  the 
standard  pronunciation  being  [zo'alad3i]. 

w 

195.  This  is  normally  only  a  short  vowel  and  is  com- 
monly written  u  in  the  conventional  alphabet,  as  in  bull 
[bul],  bush  [bu$],  cushion  [Trojan],  full  [ful],  put  [put],  as 
a  term  in  golf  pronounced  [pAt],  tulle  [tul],  etc.  For  supple 
the  usual  pronunciation  is  fsApl],  but  ['supl]  occurs  com- 
monly in  dialect  speech  and  occasionally  in  cultivated 
speech.  For  brusque  both  [brusk]  and  [brAsk]  are  cur- 
rent, with  the  preference  in  favor  of  [brusk].  For  fulsome 
the  usual  pronunciation  is  ['fulsam],  but  ['fAlsom]  is  also 
countenanced  by  usage. 


88  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

196.  This  sound  appears  also  in  words  written  u  before 
r,  as  in  lure  [Iuj]  or  [luai],  sure  [$uj]  or  [$U9j],  pure  [pjuj] 
or  [pjuoj],  cure  [kjuj]  or  [kju9j],  endure  [m'djuj]  or 
[in'djuaj],  rural  ['rural],  fury  ['fjuri],  jury  ['d5uri];  written 
ou  in  your  [juj]  or  [ju9i],  when  unstressed  [J9j];  written 
oo  in  poor  [puj]  or  [puaj],  moor  [muj]  or  [mu9j],  boor 
[bua]  or  [bu9j]. 

The  glide  vowel  in  these  words  is  always  very  slight 
in  standard  speech,  though  more  apparent  before  [i]  final 
than  before  [r]  followed  by  a  vowel.  Pronunciations  like 
['ruaral],  ['fjuari],  [/d3uan]  are  general  in  British  pronun- 
ciation but  rare  in  America. 

197.  For  your,  poor,  moor,  boor,  a  pronunciation 
[jo:9j],  [poi9j],  [moi9j],  [boi9j],  riming  with  yore,  pore, 
more,  bore,  with  [j]  omitted  of  course  in  some  dialects, 
is  current  in  localities  but  not  in  standard  American 
pronunciation.  As  a  proper  name  Moore  is  pronounced 
[mu9j],  and  when  pronounced  [moi9j]  it  is  written  More. 
For  door,  floor,  however,  the  only  current  pronunciations 
are  [dou],  [do-9j],  [flou],  [flo-ai].    See  §  191. 

M 

198.  This  sound  is  commonly  written  u  in  the  con- 
ventional spelling,  as  in  but  [bAt],  buzz  [daz],  cunning 
fkAnirj],  cup  [kAp],  husband  ['hAzband],  etc.,  but  fre- 
quently also  o,  as  in  come  [kAm],  done  [dAn],  money 
['mAni],  some  [sAm],  and  ou,  as  in  couple  ['kApl],  cousin 
['kAzin],  ['kAzn],  double  ['dAbl],  enough  [I'nAf],  trouble 
['trAbl],  slough  [sL\f],  tough  [tAf],  etc. 

199.  For  u  before  r  followed  by  a  vowel,  the  standard 
pronunciation  is  [a],  as  in  burrow  ['bAro],  hurry  ['hAri], 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  89 

turret  ['tArit],  scurry  ['skAri];  also  o  with  the  value  of  [a], 
as  in  borough  ['dato],  thorough  ['0ato];  and  ou  with  the 
value  of  [a],  as  in  courage  ['kAric^],  nourish  ['nAriJ], 
flourish  ['flAnJ],  etc.  With  some  speakers  there  is  a 
tendency  to  pronounce  the  vowel  [9]  in  these  combina- 
tions, that  is,  to  pronounce  burrow,  borough,  hurry,  turret, 
etc.,  as  ['baro],  fhari],  [rt9rit],  etc.,  but  this  pronunciation 
is  not  often  heard  in  cultivated  speech.  To  make  the 
difference  clear,  pronounce  first  the  monosyllable  her, 
then  add  a  second  syllable  [i]  without  changing  the 
phonetic  form  of  the  first  syllable,  and  finally  substitute 
for  [9]  in  the  stressed  syllable  the  vowel  [a]  as  in  cut,  etc. 

200.  The  standard  pronunciation  of  bury  is  ['ben], 
see  §  136.  For  foreign  ['form],  a  form  ['fArm]  is  some- 
times heard  in  dialect  pronunciation. 

201.  For  e  [e],  i,  y  [1]  before  [r]  followed  by  a  vowel, 
standard  English  has  [e],  [1],  see  §§  135,  170,  but  for  these 
vowels  dialect  pronunciation  often  has  [a],  merry,  very, 
terrible,  American,  bury  being  pronounced  ['mAri],  ['vah], 
['tAribl],  [a'mArikan],  ['bAri],  and  miracle,  squirrel,  stirrup, 
syrup,  Syracuse  being  pronounced  ['mArakI],  ['skwAral], 
['stArop],  ['sArop],  ['sAr^kjus].  But  usage  in  this  latter 
group  is  not  altogether  uniform,  and  though  perhaps  no 
cultivated  speaker  ever  says  ['mArakI],  many  cultivated 
speakers  do  say  ['sArap],  ['stArap],  ['skwAral].  In  words 
of  this  type,  [9]  may  also  be  heard  in  the  popular  dialects. 

202.  In   constable,    conjure,    monger,    mongrel,    and 

some  other  words  written  o  before  n,  both  f'kAnstabl], 
['kAnd39j],  ['mArjg9j],  ['mArjgral]  and  ['kanstabl],  ['kan- 
d39j],  ['marjg9j],  ['mangral]  are  in  good  use,  the  latter 
being  the  more  general. 


90  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

203.  For  com-  in  combat  and  derivatives,  American 
usage  almost  universally  has  [kom-]  or  [kam-],  but  occa- 
sionally [kAm-],  as  in  British  pronunciation.  But  com- 
pany, compass  are  always  ['kAmpani],  ['kAmpas]. 

204.  For  bombard,  bombast,  PbAm'baid],  ['bAm^bast] 
are  current  British  pronunciations,  but  in  America  the 
words  are  commonly  pbom'baud],  ['bom^bsest].  The  gen- 
eral pronunciation  of  bomb  in  America  is  [bom],  see  §  111. 

205.  For  just,  such,  [d3Ast],  [sAt$],  the  popular  speech 
often  has  feist],  feest],  [sit$],  [set$]. 

[a:] 

206.  This  sound  is  heard  only  in  the  pronunciation  of 
speakers  who  do  not  sound  [j]  in  the  final  position  and 
before  consonants.  It  is  heard  only  in  stressed  syllables, 
words  like  never  ['neva],  better  ['beta],  butter  ['bAta]  end- 
ing simply  in  [a]  when  the  final  consonant  is  not  pro- 
nounced. It  is  a  normal  vowel,  formed  with  the  point  of 
the  tongue  touching  the  roots  of  the  lower  teeth,  and  it 
should  be  clearly  distinguished  from  [9].  It  occurs  finally 
in  words  like  fur,  fir  [fAi],  infer  [m'fAi],  cur  [kAi],  spur 
[spAi],  purr  [pAi],  myrrh  [mAi],  and  medially  in  turn 
[tAin],  fern  [fAin],  furl  [fAil],  whirl  [avaiI],  dirt  [dAit], 
shirt  [$Ait],  worth  [wa:0],  certain  ['sAitn],  and  similar 
words.  When  r  final  is  not  pronounced,  it  sometimes 
leaves  a  trace  of  its  existence  as  a  weak  [a],  as  in  [fAia], 
[kAia],  etc.  This  weak  [a]  may  be  regarded  as  the  sur- 
vival of  a  glide  vowel  before  [j],  therefore  similar  in  char- 
acter to  the  unstressed  end  vowel  of  never  ['neva],  etc. 

Since  the  vowel  [ai]  occurs  only  in  the  speech  of  persons 
who  do  not  sound  r  in  the  final  position  and  before  con- 
sonants, it  does  not  appear  generally  in  American  speech, 


SOUNDS  AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  91 

but  only  in  certain  forms  of  what  is  called  loosely 
"Eastern  pronunciation."  To  most  other  speakers,  pro- 
nunciations like  fur,  fir  [fAi],  cur  [kAi],  etc.,  seem  either 
local  or  affected. 

[ei] 

207.  The  vowel  [e]  when  prolonged  tends  to  diph- 
thongize into  [ei],  especially  when  the  vowel  is  final,  as  in 
hay  [hei],  grey,  gray  [grei],  weigh  [wei],  etc.  In  standard 
American  speech  the  first  element  of  this  diphthong  is  a 
clear  [e]-vowel,  but  some  speakers  tend  to  lower  the  first 
element  to  [e],  and  this  latter  seems  to  be  the  accepted 
standard  pronunciation  in  England  (see  Jones,  Pronun- 
ciation of  English,  §  117).  It  follows  that  the  diphthongal 
quality  of  the  sound  is  more  marked  in  British  than  in 
American  pronunciation,  since  the  glide  from  [e]  to  [i]  is 
greater  than  from  [e]  to  [i].  In  fact,  with  many  American 
speakers  the  sound  is  not  diphthongal  at  all,  being  merely 
[e-]  or  [ei],  except  when  it  is  unusually  emphatic  and  long 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  in  which  case  it  becomes  [ei]  with 
practically  all  speakers. 

M 

208.  This  diphthong  is  not  general  in  American  speech, 
but  it  occurs  occasionally  in  full  stressed  monosyllables 
which  end  with  the  vowel  or  in  monosyllables  in  which 
the  vowel  stands  before  a  voiced  consonant.  Thus  for 
sea,  see  [si:]  one  sometimes  hears  a  diphthongal  pro- 
nunciation [sii],  especially  when  the  word  is  emphatic. 
Compare  also  seat  [si:t]  with  seed  [si id]  or  [slid],  freak 
[friik]  with  league  [liig]  or  [hig],  fleece  [fliis]  with  freeze 
[friiz]  or  [friiz].  But  the  diphthongal  quality  of  this  sound 
is  always  so  slight  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  re- 
cord it. 


92  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

M 

209.  This  sound  is  represented  in  the  conventional 
spelling  in  a  variety  of  ways,  as  in  rite,  right,  write  [rait], 
lie,  lye  [lai],  sky  [skai],  deny  [di'nai],  guy  [gai].  When 
exceptionally  emphatic  it  may  become  [ai]. 

210.  The  pronunciation  of  lichen  is  ['laikon]  or 
['ht$an],  most  commonly  the  former.  For  sacrifice  the 
usual  pronunciation  is  ['ssekrffais],  sometimes  ['ssekri- 
xfaiz],  but  only  very  rarely  ['ssekrffis].  For  bison  the 
common  pronunciation  is  ['baizn],  though  ['bisn],  ['baisn] 
are  current  forms  in  England.  For  dynasty  both  ['dai- 
nasti]  and  ['dinesti]  occur,  the  former  being  the  more 
general.  The  pronunciation  [fa'rama]  for  farina  [fa'riina] 
is  British  but  not  American  usage. 

211.  The  word  roil,  'to  make  turbid/  is  obsolete  in 
England,  but  generally  current  in  America.  It  has  two 
pronunciations,  the  more  familiar  being  [rail],  especially 
in  the  metaphorical  sense  of  the  word,  Ho  vex/  Ho  anger.' 
In  this  sense  the  word  may  also  be  spelled  rile.  Popu- 
larly roil  is  always  pronounced  [rail],  as  the  diphthong  oi 
regularly  was  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  still  is  by 
some  old-fashioned  folk,  as  in  spoil  [spail],  boil  [bail], 
join  [d3ain],  etc.  In  conventional  cultivated  use,  how- 
ever, a  spelling  pronunciation,  [roil],  has  largely  sup- 
planted the  older  [rail]. 

212.  In  words  ending  in  -ile,  as  in  servile,  febrile,  tac- 
tile, reptile,  hostile,  the  general  tendency  in  America  is 
to  pronounce  the  last  syllable  as  [-il],  and  so  always  in 
agile,  fragile.  In  England  the  reverse  is  true,  a  pronun^ 
ciation  like  ['aed3il]  being  characterized  by  Michaelis- 


SOUNDS   AND    THEIR   OCCURRENCE  93 

Jones,  Phonetic  Dictionary,  p.  11,  as  dialectal.  Usage  is 
not  uniform,  however,  in  America,  and  some  speakers 
say  ['saiVail],  ['hasxtail],  ['hosHail],  ['repxtail],  etc.  The 
pronunciation  of  gentile  is  always  ['d3enxtail],  to  keep 
the  word  etymologically  distinct  from  gentle. 

213.  For  quinine  several  pronunciations  are  current, 
perhaps  the  most  common  being  ['kwafnam],  but  also 
[kwi'nain],  [kwi'nim],  [ki'niin], 

214.  For  cowardice,  favorite,  genuine  the  standard 
pronunciation  is  ['kauaidis],  ['feivant],  ['dsenjum],  pop- 
ularly often  ['kauajMais],  ['fe:vavrait],  [rd3enjuvain];  but 
[rkau9jMais]  the  writer  has  observed  occasionally  also  in 
cultivated  speech. 

215.  Some  speakers,  especially  family  groups,  have  [a] 
for  the  first  element  of  this  diphthong,  giving  [ai],  as  in 
pile  [pail],  mine  [main],  kind  [kaind],  and  producing 
what  most  persons  regard  as  a  rather  ' mushy'  pronun- 
ciation. The  second  element  of  the  diphthong  is  likely 
to  become  [a],  also,  in  this  pronunciation. 

216.  For  [ai]  sometimes  [ai]  is  heard,  as  in  fine  [fain], 
time  [taim],  but  only  in  dialect  and  provincial  speech.  It 
is  probably  this  sound  which  writers  of  dialect  stories 
have  in  mind  when  they  spell  fine,  time  as  Join,  toim,  etc. 

217.  Occasionally  one  hears  from  the  older  generation, 
pronunciation  like  kind  [ki'aind],  sky  [ski'ai],  with  a 
slight  [i]  glide  vowel  between  the  consonant  and  the 
diphthong.  This  was  formerly  a  fashionable  pronuncia- 
tion (see  Webster,  Dissertations,  p.  109),  but  has  now 
almost  completely  disappeared.    See  §  123. 


94  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

[on] 

218.  lor  this  diphthong,  see  §§  74,  177. 

Normally  in  American  speech  the  first  element  of  this 
diphthong  when  it  occurs  is  a  clear  [o]-vowel,  but  some 
speakers  pronounce  a  sound  very  similar  to  [a],  as  in 
know  [nAu],  go  [gAu],  and  also  prolong  the  second  ele- 
ment of  the  diphthong.  In  American  speech  the  diph- 
thongal quality  of  the  sound  is  likely  to  be  less  marked 
than  in  British  speech.  The  diphthong  also  assumes  a 
greater  variety  of  forms  in  British  than  in  American 
speech,  and  Jones  records  all  of  the  following  variants  as 
current  in  London,  [ou],  [ou],  [au],  [au],  [au],  [au]  (Pro- 
nunciation of  English,  §  152).  He  remarks  that  "In  the 
best  speaking  care  should  be  taken  to  round  the  lips 
properly  in  pronouncing  [ou],  and  not  to  exaggerate  the 
diphthongization,"  §  154.  Neither  caution  is  urgently 
applicable  to  American  speech. 

219.  Both  [o]  and  [u]  are  rounded  vowels,  the  former  a 
mid  back  tense  vowel,  the  latter  a  high  back  slack  vowel, 
and  the  change  in  organic  position  in  the  glide  from  [o] 
to  [u]  is  not  very  great.  Examples  of  words  which  are 
likely  to  be  pronounced  as  diphthongs  are  so,  sow,  sew 
[sou],  though  p5ou],  know  [nou],  roll  [roul],  oath  [ou0], 
rose  [rouz],  etc.  But  all  such  words  are  often  pronounced 
simply  with  [oij. 

220.  In  unstressed  or  secondarily  stressed  syllables,  as 
in  thorough  [r0Aro],  borough,  burrow  ['dato],  fellow 
['felo],  window  fwmdo],  sorrow  ['saro],  piano  [pi'aeno], 
etc.,  the  vowel  is  scarcely  ever  diphthongal,  and  in  pop- 
ular speech  often  weakens  to  [a].  The  pronunciation 
['dato]  or  ['bArou]  for  borough  is  marked  as  dialectal  by 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       95 

Michaelis-Jones,  Phonetic  Dictionary,  p.  47,  for  the 
British  standard  form  ['bAro];  so  also  with  thorough,  see 
p.  423.  But  fbAro],  ['0Aro]  are  current  cultivated  pro- 
nunciations in  America,  as  well  as  ['bAro],  ['bAro],  the 
former  perhaps  even  to  be  preferred. 

[m] 

221.  For  this  diphthong,  see  §  76. 

[an] 

222.  This  is  the  common  diphthong  ou,  ow  of  house 
[haus],  cow  [kau];  ough  of  slough  [slau],  'a  swamp' 
(slough,  Ho  cast  off/  'the  cast  skin  of  a  snake/  is  pro- 
nounced [slAf]),  bough  [bau];  au  in  some  words  of  foreign 
origin,  as  in  aurochs  ['auai^oks],  Augean  [au'dsian],  Faust 
[faust].  For  slough  a  spelling  slew,  slue,  sloo,  and  a 
corresponding  pronunciation  [slui],  are  current  in  the 
Western  States. 

223.  In  several  regions  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  a 
triphthong  appears  in  this  sound  when  preceded  by  [k], 
[g],  as  in  cow  [ki'au],  count  [ki'aunt],  gout  [gi'aut],  but 
this  pronunciation  is  distinctly  local  and  dialectal. 

224.  The  recognized  pronunciation  of  jowl  is  [d3aul], 
but  [dsoil]  is  sometimes  heard,  perhaps  on  the  analogy 
of  the  more  familiar  word  bowl,  though  the  analogy  of 
howl  would  seem  to  be  just  as  strong  in  the  other  direc- 
tion. The  word  jowl,  however,  is  not  in  general  popular 
use,  and  for  that  reason  has  not  acquired  an  established 
pronunciation. 

225.  The  same  is  true  of  archaic  forms  like  enow,  a 
variant  of  enough,   and  trow,   for  which  both  [I'nau], 


96  STANDARD   ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

[trau]  and  [i'iiou],  [trou]  are  found  as  rimes  in  verse, 
where  the  words  chiefly  occur.  When  enow  appears  in 
the  proper  name,  spelled  Goodnow,  Goodenow,  Goode- 
nough,  it  is  pronounced  ['gudvnou],  fgud^nou]. 

226.  For  blouse  the  usual  pronunciation  is  [blauz],  but 
a  more  or  less  fashionable  pronunciation  (milliner's 
French),  [bluiz],  is  sometimes  affected.  The  final  con- 
sonant may  also  be  voiceless,  as  in  [blaus]. 

227.  In  British  pronunciation  the  first  element  of 
this  diphthong  is  very  commonly  [a],  as  in  round  [raund], 
gown  [gaun],  renown  [n'naun],  etc.,  and  this  pronuncia- 
tion is  sometimes  heard  in  America,  though  far  less  fre- 
quently than  [au].  In  New  England  and  in  the  Southern 
States  the  first  element  of  the  diphthong  is  often  pro- 
nounced [ad],  as  in  hound  [hseund],  out  [aeut],  but  this 
pronunciation  is  heard  in  cultivated  speech  only  as  a 
Southernism. 

M 

228.  This  diphthong  is  conventionally  written  oi,  oy, 
as  in  boil  [boil],  toy  [toi],  also  uoy  in  buoy  [boi],  buoyant 
['boijant].  A  spelling-pronunciation  [bui],  ['burjant]  is 
sometimes  heard  for  buoy,  buoyant,  but  is  not  general. 
The  eighteenth  century  pronunciation  of  this  diphthong 
was  [ai],  and  this  pronunciation  still  fingers  among  some 
old-fashioned  and  rustic  speakers  in  words  like  boil  [bail], 
join  [d3am],  and  persists  generally  in  the  somewhat  collo- 
quial word  roil,  rile  [rail],  see  §  211. 

[ju],  [jui] 

229.  This  is  a  rising  diphthong,  the  first  element  being 
slightly  stressed,  the  second  element  stressed  and  usually 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       97 

prolonged.  On  the  consonantal  quality  of  the  first  ele- 
ment, see  §§  25,  78.  The  diphthong  is  the  sound  com- 
monly known  as  'long  u,'  and  is  written  in  the  ordinary 
spelling  u,  as  in  music  ['mjuizik],  musician  [mju'zi$on], 
use  [juis],  [juiz];  ew,  as  in  few  [fjiii],  new  [nju:];  eau,  as  in 
beauty  ['bjuiti].  In  the  initial  position  and  after  lip  con- 
sonants, usage  uniformly  has  the  sound  []u]  for  ortho- 
graphic long  u  and  its  equivalents,  as  in  use  [juis],  [juiz], 
rebuke  [n'bjuik],  butte  [bjuit],  fusion  ['fju^an],  mule 
[mju:l],  view  [vjui],  etc.  The  combination  sp  is  followed 
by  [ju]  the  same  as  p,  as  in  spurious  ['spjuinas],  spume 
['spjuim]. 

230.  Before  r,  the  second  element  of  the  diphthong  is 
likely  to  be  lowered  to  [u],  e.g.,  pure,  pronounced  [pjui] 
or  [pjuj],  cure  [kjui]  or  [kjui],  etc.  When  the  r  is  not 
pronounced,  a  slight  [o]- vowel  may  take  its  place;  when  it 
is  pronounced,  a  glide  vowel  [a]  may  be  heard  before  the 
consonant. 

231.  After  [1]  and  [r]  the  diphthong  is  rarely  heard 
except  in  precise  speech,  the  current  pronunciation  being 
[in],  as  in  lute  [hi it],  Lucy  [luisi],  Luke  [luik],  rule  [ruil], 
rude  [ruid],  rune  [rum],  ruse  [ruiz]. 

After  [d],  [t],  [0],  [n],  [s],  usage  varies  widely,  some 
speakers  pronouncing  duty  ['djuiti],  tube  [tjuib],  enthu- 
siasm [en'fljuizisezm],  nude  [njuid],  new  [njui],  suit 
[sjuit],  and  others  [duiti],  [tuib],  etc.  The  dictionaries 
generally  authorize  only  the  first  of  these  pronunciations 
after  [d],  [t],  [0],  [n],  [s],  and  academic  authority  is  very 
likely  to  condemn  the  pronunciation  [ur]  as  uncultivated, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  occurs  widely  in  the  speech  of 
educated  and  informed  people.    It  has  long  been  current 


98  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

in  America,  as  is  evident  from  Noah  Webster's  defense  of 
[ui]  in  duty,  etc.,  as  the  best  pronunciation.1 

232.  After  [k],  orthographic  u,  representing  the  long 
vowel,  is  regularly  [ju:],  as  in  cube  [kjuib],  cucumber 
['kjuiNkAmb9j],  cuneiform  ['kju:ni8vfojm],  acute  [o'kjuit], 
culinary  ['kju:loNnen],  also  pronounced  ['kAte^nen].  The 
analogy  of  these  words  has  affected  coupon  ['ku^pon], 
which  in  popular  speech  is  often  pronounced  ['kju:Npon]. 

233.  After  [g],  the  spelling  u  usually  indicates  merely 
the  quality  of  the  consonant,  as  in  guard  [gaud],  guess 
[ges],  and  has  no  phonetic  value,  or  it  stands  for  a  short 
vowel,  as  in  gun  [gAn],  gush  [gA$],  etc.  In  legume,  le- 
guminous, lugubrious,  gubernatorial,  the  vowel  after  g  is 
usually  [ui],  rarely  [ju:]. 

234.  In  unstressed  syllables,  [ju]  of  standard  pronun- 
ciation is  sometimes  weakened  in  popular  pronunciation, 
as  in  accurate  ['aekjunt],  pronounced  ['sekarit],  sinew 
['sinju],  pronounced  ['sinu],  argue  ['augju],  pronounced 
['augi],  ague  ['eigju],  written  in  dialect  stories  as  ager, 
value  ['vselju],  written  in  dialect  as  vally,  etc.  The  pro- 
nunciation ['figaj]  for  figure  is  occasionally  heard  on  the 
lips  of  cultivated  speakers  in  America  for  standard 
['figjuj],  but  much  less  commonly  than  in  England. 
Michaelis- Jones,  Phonetic  Dictionary,  s.  v.,  describes 
['figjui]  as  dialectal  in  England.  In  rapid  speech  ['figjui] 
may  become  ['figjaj]. 

1  Webster,  Dissertations  (1789),  pp.  153  ff.  It  seems  to  be  less 
general  in  the  South,  than  it  is  in  New  England,  whence  it  has 
spread  to  all  sections  of  the  country. 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  99 

CONSONANTS 

[b] 

235.  This  consonant  is  pronounced  in  essentially  the 
same  way  in  all  positions.  A  b  appears,  however,  in  the 
conventional  spelling  of  some  words  which  has  no  phonetic 
value,  (1)  before  t,  as  in  debt  [det],  doubt  [daut],  subtle 
[rsAtl],  subtly  ['sAtli];  (2)  after  m,  as  in  bomb  [bom]  or 
[bAm],  dumb  [cLvm],  climb  [klaim],  comb  [ko:m],  crumb 
[krAm],  jamb  [d38em],  lamb  [lsem],  lambkin  ['lsemkin], 
numb  [nAm],  comparative  degree  number  ['nAmaj],  super- 
lative numbest  ['nAmast],  aplomb  [a'plom],  plumb  [plAm], 
plumber  ['plAmaj],  tomb  [tuim]. 

236.  When  m  is  followed  by  b  and  a  vowel,  the  b 
normally  goes  with  the  second  syllable  and  is  then  pro- 
nounced, as  in  limber  ['limbaj],  lumber  ['lAmbaj],  number 
['nAmbai],  timber  ['timbaj],  etc.,  except  when  the  in- 
fluence of  a  main  form,  in  which  the  m  is  not  pronounced, 
affects  the  pronunciation  of  derivatives,  as  in  climb 
[klaim],  climbing  ['klaimirj],  climber  ['klaimaj],  plumb 
[pUm],  plumbing  ['pL\.min],  plumber  fplAmaj],  etc. 

237.  In  the  combination  mbl,  [b]  s  always  pronounced, 
as  in  crumble  ['krAmbl],  humble  ['hAmbl],  nimble  ['nimbi], 
thimble  ['0imbl],  tremble  ['trembl],  etc. 

238.  In  rhomb  [romb]  a  learned  pronunciation  with 
[b]  is  sometimes  heard,  due  to  the  influence  of  spelling, 
and  in  iamb  ['ai^aemb],  also  a  learned  word,  the  pronun- 
ciation with  [b]  is  general.  In  cupboard,  p  has  been 
assimilated  to  b  which  remains  as  a  short  consonant, 
['kAbajd].    In  the  proper  name  Jacob,  the  final  consonant 


100  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

very  generally  becomes  voiceless,  the  word  being  pro* 
nounced  ['dseikap];  so  also  in  Jacobs,  Jacobson. 

[d] 

239.  The  pronunciation  of  d  of  the  conventional  spell- 
ing remains  uniform,  except  as  the  sound  is  affected  by 
assimilation  to  neighboring  sounds.  Immediately  after  a 
voiceless  consonant,  [d]  is  regularly  assimilated,  becoming 
also  voiceless,  as  in  backed  [baekt],  baked  [beikt],  sniffed 
[snift],  hissed  [hist],  flapped  [flsept],  wished  [wi$t],  frothed 
[fro0t],  etc. 

240.  The  reverse  process  may  sometimes  be  observed 
in  relaxed  and  slovenly  speech,  that  is,  a  voiceless  [t]  in 
voiced  surrounding  becomes  voiced,  as  in  belated  [bi- 
'leitad],  pronounced  [bi'leidod];  rated  ['reitod],  scarcely 
distinguished  in  pronunciation  from  raided  ['reidod]; 
fitted  ['fited],  pronounced  ['fidad].  In  popular  speech 
putty  is  frequently  pronounced  ['pAdi],  and  in  some  dia- 
lects water  becomes  ['woda],  letter  becomes  fleda],  bitter 
becomes  ['bida],  etc.,  see  §  14. 

241.  After  [1]  and  [n],  where  according  to  rule  one  ex- 
pects to  find  a  voiced  [d],  in  some  words  forms  with  both 
[d]  and  [t]  exist,  and  the  latter  pronunciation  is  some- 
times represented  by  t  in  the  conventional  spelling,  as 
in  learned,  learnt,  [laind],  [feint],  as  participial  adjective 
['lajnad];  burned,  burnt,  [bajnd],  [bsant];  spoiled,  spoilt, 
[spoild],  [spoilt];  spelled,  spelt,  [speld],  [spelt];  spilled, 
spilt,  [spild],  [spilt].  Usage  is  arbitrary  in  pronunciations 
of  this  type.  One  may  say  [spilt]  for  spilled,  but  not 
[kilt]  for  killed,  except  in  dialect  Irish-English,  where 
pronunciations  with  [t]  are  found  in  many  preterites  and 
past  participles  which  have  only  [d]  in  standard  English. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      101 

242.  For  used,  in  the  sense  of  'employ,'  'make  use  of/ 
the  common  pronunciation  is  [juizd],  but  for  used,  Ho 
be  accustomed  to/  a  widely  current  pronunciation  is 
[juist],  when  the  final  consonant  [d]  is  assimilated  to  the 
[t]  of  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  which  in  most  instances 
follows  the  word.  In  a  phrase  like  I  used?  to  go  [ai  -'juistS' 
'gou],  there  is  of  course  only  one  [t],  to  which  t«he  preceel-' 
ing  consonant  has  also  been  assimilated,  [z]  becoming  [s]. 
A  like  assimilation  is  common  in  I  had  to  go  [ai  'haeta 
'gou]  or  [ai  'hsetia  'gou]. 

243.  After  [n],  in  standard  familiar  speech  [d]  before 
a  consonant  is  frequently  omitted,  as  in  grandmother 
['grsen^mAtfej] ;  handkerchief  ['h8enk9.ixt$if],  or  following 
the  general  tendency  in  the  pronunciation  of  [n]  be- 
fore [k],  see  §  289,  ['haerjkaiHSif];  handsome  ['haensam]; 
Windsor  ['wmzaj];  brand-new,  also  spelled  bran-new 
['braen^ju:].  Unemphatic  and  frequently  becomes  merely 
[n],  as  in  time  and  tide  [taim  n  taid],  good  and  hot  [gud  n 
hat],  etc.  These  pronunciations  may  be  heard  from  cul- 
tivated speakers,  but  usage  does  not  countenance  this 
omission  in  all  instances,  pronunciations  like  band-box 
['baen^baks],  landlady  ['laenNle:di],  landlord  ['laenxbjd],  be- 
ing heard  only  in  careless  or  very  rapid  speech. 

244.  A  similar  omission  of  [d]  takes  place  before  [n]  in 
Wednesday  [rwenzvdei],  ['wenzdi]. 

245.  After  [n]  in  stressed  syllables,  [d]  is  sometimes 
added  in  popular  speech,  as  in  [draund]  for  drown, 
[gaund]  for  gown. 

246.  In  the  combination  nge,  a  [d]  is  commonly  pro- 
nounced after  [n],  as  in  angel  ['eind38l]3  danger  ['deindsaa], 


102  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

hinge  [hind3],  impinge  [im'pind3],  strange  [stre:nd3],  etc., 
though  some  speakers  pronounce  such  words  without  a 
[d],  i.e.,  ['ei^ol],  ['deu^ai],  etc.  The  pronunciation  with 
[d]  is  to  be  preferred.  The  same  is  true  of  the  combina- 
tion ige;  is  iii  barge  [bauds],  large  [laud3],  forge  [folds], 
urge  {'9^3 J;  and -lge,  as  in  bilge  [bikts],  bulge  [bAld3], 
indulge  [ir/UX'ld^],  and  other  words.    See  §  341. 

[g] 

247.  This  sound  varies  considerably  according  to  its 
vocalic  surrounding,  as  may  be  observed  by  comparing 
gig  [g!g]  with  gone  [gon],  see  §  21.  No  questions  of  pro- 
priety are  raised  by  this  variation,  however,  because  all 
speakers  instinctively  make  the  adaptation  necessary  to 
fit  the  consonant  to  its  surroundings. 

248.  A  g  of  the  conventional  spelling  is  silent  in  a 
number  of  words  before  [m]  and  [n],  as  in  paradigm 
['paeradim],  sometimes  ['pseroMaim];  phlegm  [flem],  but 
phlegmatic  always  [fleg'maetik] ;  condign  [kan'dain];  for- 
eign ['form];  impugn  [im'pjuin];  reign  [rem];  sovereign 
['sovran].  For  poignant;  poignancy  the  usual  pronuncia- 
tions are  ['pomant],  ['poinonsi],  but  through  the  influence 
of  spelling,  ['poignant],  ['poignansi]  are  also  sometimes 
heard.  An  initial  g  is  silent  in  gnarled  ['nauld],  gnash 
[nseSL  gnat  [nset],  gnaw  [noi],  gnome  [noim],  gnu  [nui], 
gnostic  ['nostik].  For  physiognomy  the  usual  pronuncia- 
tion is  [fizi'ognami],  but  also  sometimes  [fizi'onomi]. 

249.  The  combination  ng  of  the  conventional  spelling 
represents  simply  [rj]  in  pronunciation  when  final,  as  in 
sing  [sin],  singing  [sirjirj],  wrong  [ron],  tongue  [tArj],  young 
[JAn],  etc.  But  in  the  combination  ngl  [rjgl],  ngr  [rjgr]  be- 
fore vowels  or  when  [1],  [r]  are  syllabic,  a  [g]  is  retained, 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  103 

as  in  angle  ['aerjgal];  England  ['ingland],  English  ['ingli$], 
though  some  speakers  say  ['inland],  ['inli$];  Inglis  ['irjglis], 
Ingalls  ['ingalz];  single  fsingl];  anger  ['aengai],  angry 
['aengri];  finger  ['fingaj];  linger  ['lingaj];  longer  ['lorjgai]; 
stronger  ['strorjgai];  younger  ['JAqgai],  etc.  In  the  super- 
latives longest  ['longest],  strongest  ['strongest],  youngest 
['JArjgast],  the  [g]  is  retained  through  the  influence  of  the 
comparative  with  [i].  On  the  other  hand,  words  like 
bringer  ['brinaj],  hanger  ['haenaj],  ringer  ['rirjaj],  singer 
['sirjej],  stringer  ['strirjaj],  etc.,  in  which  the  same  com- 
bination of  letters  occurs  as  in  linger,  etc.,  have  no  [g] 
because  the  derivative  forms  are  influenced  by  head 
forms  like  bring  [bnrj],  hang  [hsen],  etc. 

250.  The  combination  ngu,  when  the  u  has  phonetic 
value  and  is  not  silent  as  in  tongue,  harangue,  is  pro- 
nounced [rjgw],  as  in  languid  ['laerjgwid];  language 
[7laengwid3];  languish  [1aerjgwi$];  lingual  ['lingwal],  lin- 
guist [lingwist],  and  probably  by  attraction  to  lingual, 
etc.,  [rjg]  in  lingo  ['lingo].  For  languor  all  three  pronun- 
ciations occur,  ['laenaj],  ['laerjgsi]  and  ['lserjgwej],  the  first 
two  being  more  general  than  the  third. 

251.  For  recognizance,  'a  bond  or  pledge  to  keep  the 
peace/  etc.,  the  usual  pronunciation  is  [n'kagnizans],  less 
often  [n'kanizans].  As  a  military  term,  meaning  a  pre- 
liminary examination  of  a  region,  the  spelling  is  recon- 
naissance, pronounced  [n'kanisans].  For  recognize  the 
only  standard  pronunciation  is  one  with  [g],  as  in  ['rek- 
agxnaiz],  though  one  not  infrequently  hears  ['rekanaiz] 
in  rapid  speech  and,  perhaps  even  more  frequently, 
recognition  pronounced  [rcka'ni$an]. 

252.  For  suffragan  the  accepted  pronunciation  is  ['sAf- 
ragan],  but  the  pronunciation  of  suffrage  ['sAfnd3]  some- 


104  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

times  produces  ['sAfnd3on]  in  the  speech  of  persons  to 
whom  the  word  is  mainly  an  eye-word. 

253.  The  combination  gh  of  the  conventional  spelling 
is  always  silent,  as  in  right  [rait],  freight  [freit],  sought 
[so it],  etc.,  except  when  it  stands  for  [f],  see  §  357,  or  in  a 
few  words  for  [g],  as  in  ghostly,  ghost,  ghetto. 

W 

254.  The  main  question  that  arises  in  connection  with 
h  is  whether  it  is  pronounced  or  whether  it  is  silent.  In 
America  there  is  no  group  of  speakers  who  add  and  omit 
[h]  before  vowels  in  the  manner  of  the  Cockney  English, 
but  in  general  whenever  h  appears  in  writing  in  stressed 
position,  American  speakers  pronounce  it.  To  this  rule 
there  are  some  exceptions,  heir,  heiress,  honor,  honest, 
hour  never  having  an  initial  [h].  In  herb  and  the  proper 
names  Humphrey,  Humphries,  the  initial  h  is  sometimes 
pronounced,  sometimes  not,  the  pronunciation  without 
[h]  being  the  more  general.  In  human,  humble,  humor  a 
pronunciation  without  [h]  is  almost  never  heard  in  Amer- 
ica in  the  speech  of  cultivated  persons,  the  phonetic  forms 
of  these  words  being  ['hjuiman],  ['hAmbI],  ['hjummi].  But 
perhaps  ['juimaj]  should  be  recognized  as  an  occasional 
cultivated  pronunciation.  In  derivatives  from  herb,  such 
as  herbage,  herbalist,  herbarium,  the  initial  consonant  is 
always  pronounced. 

255.  In  unstressed  syllables,  initial  [h]  is  sometimes 
lost.  For  shepherd  and  forehead  the  usual  pronunciations 
are  ['$epaid]  and  ['fored]  or  ['fond],  though  a  spelling- 
pronunciation  ['forced]  is  occasionally  heard.  For  vehe- 
ment, vehicle  the  standard  pronunciations  are  [Vioment] 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      105 

and  ['viikl],  though  popular  forms  with  [h]  are  not  infre- 
quent. When  the  [h]  is  pronounced  in  vehement,  the 
stress  is  likely  to  be  on  the  second  syllable,  [vi'hiimant]. 

256.  In  weak  syllables  [h]  is  sometimes  dropped  in 
standard  speech  in  words  which  retain  it  when  the  sylla- 
ble is  stressed,  as  in  history  ['histari],  an  historical  novel 
[sen  is'tonkl  'navl];  him  [him],  but  I  saw  him  [ai  sor 
im];  herald  ['herald],  but  an  heraldic  device  [aen  er'aeldik 
di'vais]. 

257.  In  proper  names  compounded  with  -ham,  [h] 
is  sometimes  lost,  as  in  Chatham  ['t§8etam],  Graham 
['greiam],  Pelham  ['pelom],  Wyndham  ['windam],  Ford- 
ham  ['fojdam],  and  in  a  great  many  other  dissyllables  like 
these.  But  in  trisyllables  the  general  tendency  of  Amer- 
ican speech  is  to  put  a  secondary  stress  on  the  third 
syllable,  which  thus  maintains  the  full  form  of  -ham  in 
words  like  Birmingham  ['baamiifhaem],  Buckingham  fbAk- 
irphsem],  Frothingham  ['frotur/haem],  Wilbraham  ['wil- 
bra^haem],  locally  pronounced  ['wilbaivhaem],  etc.  In 
Waltham,  Wrentham,  names  of  towns  in  Massachusetts, 
the  t  and  h  combine,  giving  ['renflam],  and  for  Waltham 
['woPfleem],  with  a  heavy  secondary  stress.  These  are  the 
local  pronunciations,  but  persons  to  whom  the  words 
are  merely  eye-words  would  probably  pronounce  them 
['rentam]  and  ['woltam]. 

258.  After  x  [ks],  [gz],  h  is  normally  not  pronounced, 
as  in  exhibit  [eg'zibit],  exhibition  [eksi'bi$an];  exhaust 
[ig'zoist];  exhort  [ig'zoit],  etc.  Occasionally  one  hears 
exhale  [eks'heil],  exhume  [eks'hjuim],  where  the  [h]  is 
pronounced  in  an  effort  to  make  the  second  elements  of 
the  words  etymologically  prominent. 


106  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

259.  This  sound  is  commonly  written  y  in  the  ordinary 
alphabet,  as  in  yawl  [jo:l],  yes  [jes],  yearn  [jajn],  youth 
[ju:0],  etc.  Words  written  with  initial  u,  as  in  use  [juis], 
union  ['juinjon],  etc.,  have  this  sound  as  the  first  element 
of  the  so-called  'long  u.'  In  internal  position  [j]  appears 
in  companion  [kam'psenjan],  onion  [rAnjon],  carrier  ['ka> 
rijaj],  collier  ['kalijai]  or  ['kaljsj],  etc.  It  is  also  occa- 
sionally heard  in  the  speech  of  precise  persons  who  try 
to  avoid  the  sound  [t$]  generally  current  in  words  like 
feature,  nature,  etc.,  which  are  artificially  pronounced 
['futjuj],  ['neitjuj],  etc. 

260.  The  word  yeast  [jiist]  in  popular  speech  often 
loses  the  initial  consonant,  becoming  [iist], 

261.  In  illiterate  speech,  a  pronunciation  ['kaljam]  for 
standard  column  ['kalam]  is  frequent. 

262.  For  [j]  in  French  and  Italian  words  written  gn, 
see  §  285.  The  word  reveille  is  commonly  pronounced 
['revali],  though  occasionally  [ro'veijo];  surveillance  is 
either  [sa/veitans]  or  [sai'veiljons];  cotillon  is  either  [ko- 
'titan]  or  [ko'tiljan],  but  when  the  latter  pronunciation  is 
intended,  the  spelling  is  usually  cotillion. 

M 

263.  The  ordinary  spellings  for  this  sound  are  k,  c,  ch, 
ck,  qu  (with  the  value  of  [k]  or  [kw]),  and  x  (with  the 
value  of  [ks]),  as  in  king  [kirj],  call  [koil],  chemist  ['kemist], 
black  [blaek],  exchequer  [eks't$ek8j],  tax  [tseks].  In  words 
written  cc  only  one  [k]  is  pronounced,  as  in  account 
[o'kaunt],  accuse  [a'kjuiz],  etc.  In  schism  [sizm]  and  de- 
rivatives, ch  is  silent.    For  schedule  the  current  pronun- 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE       107 

ciation  in  America  is  ['skedjul],  but  ['$edjul]  is  the  more 
general  pronunciation  in  England.  The  pronunciation  of 
cham  is  [ksem],  the  word  being  an  older  variant  form  of 
khan  [kain].  In  flaccid  ['flaeksid],  the  first  c  represents 
[k],  the  second  [s]. 

The  spelling  ch  is  silent  in  drachm  [drsem]  and  yacht 
Qat]. 

264.  In  the  combination  kn,  k  is  silent,  except  when 
preceded  by  a  vowel  with  which  it  makes  a  syllable,  as  in 
knowledge  ['nalids],  but  acknowledge  [aek'nalids] ;  knee 
[nil],  knight  [nait],  etc. 

265.  Before  [t],  [k]  is  lost  in  victuals  ['vitlz],  indict 
[m'dait]  and  derivatives,  likewise  in  arctic  ['autik]  in 
popular  speech  and  not  infrequently  also  in  cultivated 
speech.  The  form  ['autiks]  is  commonly  used  as  the  name 
of  a  kind  of  over-shoes.  In  most  words,  however,  [k]  is 
regularly  pronounced  before  [t],  as  in  convict  ['kanvikt], 
deduct  [di'dAkt],  depict  [di'pikt],  picked  [pikt].  For 
Connecticut  the  standard  pronunciation  is  [ka'netikat]. 

266.  No  [k]  appears  in  the  combination  scl,  as  in 
muscle  fmAsl],  corpuscle  ['kojvpAsl].  For  corpuscle  a 
second  spelling  and  pronunciation  occur,  corpuscule  [koj- 
'pAskjul],  hence  also  corpuscular  [ko/pAskjulaj]. 

267.  In  the  combination  [qk]  followed  by  another  con- 
sonant, many  somewhat  careless  speakers  tend  to  omit 
[k],  pronouncing  anxious  ['senkjas]  as  ['aenjas];  injunction 
[m^AnktSan]  as  [in'd3Ar)$8n];  linked  [linkt]  as  [lint],  etc. 
In  the  unstressed  position  this  pronunciation  is  general, 
as  in  anxiety  [serj'zanti];  punctilious  [pAr/tilias],  but 
punctual  fpArjktSual];  sanctimonious  [saenti'moinias],  but 
sanctify  ['sserjktffai],  etc. 


108  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

268.  In  blackguard  ['bla^gcud],  k  is  silent,  being  as- 
similated to  the  following  g. 

269.  The  combination  [ks],  in  unstressed  position 
when  followed  by  a  voiced  consonant  or  a  vowel,  gen- 
erally becomes  [gz],  as  in  exact  [eg'zaekt],  exhibit  [eg'zib- 
it],  exile  (verb)  [eg'zail],  auxiliary  [og'zilien],  luxurious 
[lAg^urias]. 

270.  Analogy  operates  in  words  of  this  type,  however, 
a  form  like  axiom  ['aeksiam],  with  [ks]  under  the  stress, 
retaining  this  pronunciation  in  axiomatic  [seksio'maetik], 
and  vex  [veks]  preserving  a  voiceless  consonant  in  vexa- 
tion [veks'eiSan].  But  [veg'ze:$on]  is  also  heard,  and 
under  the  influence  of  luxurious,  a  pronunciation  ['lAg38ri] 
for  luxury  ['lAkSari].  In  the  same  way  exile  (noun  and 
adjective)  ['egzail]  is  to  be  accounted  for,  by  the  side  of 
['eksail],  the  former  being  now  the  more  common  pronun- 
ciation of  the  word. 

271.  Under  the  stress  and  before  voiceless  consonants, 
[ks]  generally  remains,  as  in  exhibition  [xeksi'bi$9n], 
exigency  ['eksid3ensi],  exit  ['eksit],  excellent  ['eksebnt], 
expire  [ek'spaiai],  extreme  [ek'striim],  ecstatic  [ek'staetik], 
etc. 

272.  A  [k]  is  often  added  in  popular  speech  between 
[rj]  and  [0],  length  [lerj0],  strength  [strerj0],  and  derivatives, 
being  pronounced  [lerjk0],  [strerjk0],  etc. 

w 

273.  An  1  of  the  ordinary  spelling  is  silent  before  [k], 
as  in  talk  [tork],  walk  [wo:k],  chalk  [t$oik],  caulk  [koik], 
Falkland  f'foklond],  folk   [foik],   yolk   [yo:k],   when   the 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  109 

vowel  preceding  [k]  is  [o]  or  [oj.  After  other  vowels  [1]  is 
retained,  as  in  calculate  ['kaelkju^e-t],  in  dialect  speech 
also  pronounced  ['kaek-];  elk  [elk],  milk  [milk],  hulk 
[hAlk].  In  Balkan  ['bo:  Ikon]  the  spelling  has  probably  in- 
fluenced the  pronunciation  (cf.  balk  [bo:k],  balky  ['bo  ski], 
where  the  [1]  is  not  pronounced),  or  the  syllable  division, 
which  carries  the  [1]  with  the  first  syllable,  causes  it  to  be 
pronounced.  In  falcon,  falconry,  the  1  is  always  pro- 
nounced in  American  speech,  probably  because  this  is 
mainly  a  literary  word  and  the  spelling  has  thus  been 
unusually  influential. 

274.  Before  m  and  after  a  [a:],  [se],  o  [oi],  an  1  of  the 
ordinary  spelling  is  silent,  as  in  balm  [ba:m],  calm  [ka:m], 
alms  [a:mz],  palm  [pa:m],  psalm  [sa:m],  qualm  [kwaim], 
salmon  ['saemon]  or  ['saimon],  almond  ['aimond]  or 
['aemond],  holm  [hoim],  Holmes  [hoimz].  But  1  is  pro- 
nounced after  [e],  [i],  [a],  as  in  helm  [helm],  film  [film], 
culm  [kAlm],  Hulme  [hAlm],  and  of  course  in  words  in 
which  m  goes  with  a  succeeding  vowel,  as  in  almanac, 
Palmyra,  calmative,  a  medical  term  derived  from  calm, 
etc.  In  a  word  like  almond,  which  might  be  written 
['aimnd],  the  second  syllable  is  apparently  so  slightly 
syllabic  as  not  to  cause  a  separation  between  the  preced- 
ing 1  and  m.  Yet  a  pronunciation  ['aelmond]  does  occur 
not  infrequently  in  popular  speech,  and  the  local  pronun- 
ciation of  Salmon,  a  frequent  proper  name  in  Connec- 
ticut, is  ['saelmon]. 

275.  In  psalter,  psaltery,  ['soltoj],  ['soltori],  1  is  always 
pronounced.  In  psalmist  it  is  usually  not  pronounced, 
through  force  of  the  analogy  of  psalm.  But  in  psalmody, 
psalmodic,  pronunciations  on  the  analogy  of  psalm  with- 
out 1,  and  pronunciations  with  1,  ['sselmodi],  [ssel'madik] 


110  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN    AMERICA 

are  both  current,  in  the  latter  case  the  two  consonants 
going  with  separate  syllables. 

276.  After  a  [a:],  [a:],  [ae],  o  [oi],  1  is  silent  before  [f], 
[v],  in  calf,  half,  salve,  golf  [gosf],  but  also  pronounced 
[golf],  the  latter  being  perhaps  the  more  common  pronun- 
ciation in  America.  When  the  [f]  or  [v]  goes  with  a  suc- 
ceeding syllable,  a  preceding  [1]  is  pronounced,  as  in 
palfrey  ['pselfri],  salvage  [Wvid&l,  salvation  [ssel'vei$an], 
etc.  In  the  proper  names  Ralph,  Rolfe,  an  [1]  is  always 
pronounced,  probably  through  the  influence  of  the  spell- 
ing, though  formerly  a  pronunciation  without  [1]  was 
also  current,  The  verb  salve,  in  the  special  sense  of 
saving  a  ship  or  a  ship's  cargo,  is  pronounced  [saelv]. 

277.  Before  [n],  [1]  is  silent  in  Lincoln  ['lirjkan]. 

278.  The  spelling  colonel  for  ['kainl],  ['kAinl],  is  due  to 
the  French  and  Italian  form  of  this  word,  but  the  pro- 
nunciation is  due  to  the  Spanish  form,  in  which  r  appears 
instead  of  1  in  the  spelling. 

279.  In  solder  ['sadai],  1  is  silent,  though  otherwise 
generally  pronounced  before  d.  Dialectally  this  word  is 
sometimes  pronounced  ['soidai],  written  sawder  in  dialect 
stories.  In  could,  would,  should,  no  [1]  is  present  in  pro- 
nunciation, and  historically  no  1  should  appear  in  the 
spelling  of  could.  The  Middle  English  form  of  this  word 
is  coude,  but  later  the  spelling  changed  to  could  under 
the  influence  of  the  analogy  of  would  and  should,  both  of 
which  had  1  through  etymological  origin.  But  could 
seems  to  have  retained  its  pronunciation  without  [1],  and 
even  to  have  attracted  would  and  should  to  it.  As 
auxiliaries,  these  words  were  all  slightly  stressed  in  the 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  111 

word  group,  and  this  fact  may  have  contributed  to  the 
loss  of  the  [1]  in  them. 

280.  Words  written  11,  normally  have  only  a  single 
[l]-sound,  as  in  holly  ['hall],  fully  ['full],  etc.,  except  when 
for  the  sake  of  unusual  clearness  a  word  like  wholly  is 
pronounced  ['hoilli]  to  distinguish  it  from  holy  ['ho ill],  or 
solely  is  pronounced  ['soilli]  to  keep  it  etymologically  dis- 
tinct from  the  word  soul,  or  foully  is  pronounced  ['faulli] 
to  keep  it  etymologically  distinct  from  fowl.  Ordinarily, 
however,  wholly  and  holy  are  pronounced  exactly  alike, 
f'hoili]. 

[m] 

281.  The  pronunciation  of  [m]  in  standard  English 
causes  no  difficulty.  When  m  is  written,  it  is  always  pro- 
nounced, except  in  mnemonic  [ni'manik]  and  derivative 
forms  of  this  word,  where  it  is  silent,  and  in  comptroller 
[kan'troilai],  where  it  is  pronounced  [n]. 

282.  In  popular  English  [m]  is  sometimes  made  syllabic 
after  [1],  elm  [elm],  helm  [helm],  film  [film],  etc.,  being 
pronounced  ['elam],  ['helam],  ['fibm],  etc. 

283.  For  pumpkin  standard  pronunciation  has  ['pAmp- 
kin],  ['pAmkin],  but  dialect  speech  commonly  has  ['pArj- 
km],  ['pAnkn]. 

W 

284.  The  usual  orthographic  spelling  for  [n]  is  n,  but 
also  gn,  kn,  with  g  and  k  silent,  as  in  no  [nou],  ant  [aent], 
penny  ['peni],  ton  [tAn];  condign  [kan'dam],  gnaw  [noi], 
feign  [fein],  foreign  ['form],  poignant  ['pomant];  knee  [nil], 
knell  [nel],  knock  [nak],  knoll  [noil],  know  [nou]. 


112  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

285.  In  words  of  French  and  Italian  origin  written  gn, 
as  in  cognac,  mignonette,  vignette,  Bologna,  Campagna, 
and  in  Spanish  words  written  n,  as  in  canon,  senor,  pinon, 
the  sound  is  [nj],  as  in  ['koinvjaek],  PminjVnet],  [vin'jet], 
[ba'loinja],  popularly  often  pronounced  [[ba'lomi],  [kaem- 
'paenjo],  ['kaenjon],  ['siin^joi],  ['pinxjon].  For  caiion  a 
spelling  canyon  is  now  commonly  used.  Exceptions  to 
this  rule  are  poignant,  noted  above,  and  champagne 
PSaem'pem].  The  place  name  Boulogne  is  commonly  pro- 
nounced [bu'loin],  and  for  Bourgogne  only  the  Anglicized 
forms  Burgoyne,  Burgundy  are  in  general  use.  In  the 
customary  pronunciation  ['siin^joi]  for  senor  the  accented 
vowel  has  lost  its  Spanish  value. 

286.  After  1,  [n]  is  silent  in  kiln  [kil],  though  a  pronun- 
ciation with  [n],  due  to  the  influence  of  the  spelling,  is 
also  heard. 

287.  For  chimney  ['t$rmni],  popular  English  often  has 
['tjimh],  ['tSimbh]. 

288.  After  [m],  an  orthographic  n  is  regularly  silent, 
except  when  it  belongs  to  a  succeeding  syllable,  as  in 
solemn  ['salam],  but  solemnize  ['satam^naiz] ;  autumn 
['oitom],  but  autumnal  [o'tAmnol];  hymn  [him],  but 
hymnal  ['himnal].  The  influence  of  a  head  form  without 
[n]  often  preserves  this  pronunciation  even  when  mn  is 
followed  by  a  vowel,  as  in  condemn  [kon'dem],  condemn- 
ing [kan'demrrj];  damn  [daem],  damning  ['daemirj];  in  joy 
and  hymning  (Milton)  [in  d30i  send  'himirj]. 

In  popular  pronunciation  [n]  is  often  omitted  in  gov- 
ernment ['gAvajn^ment],  pronounced  ['gAva/ment]. 
For  n  fa]  before  [k],  see  §  289. 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIB  OCCURRENCE  113 

[Q] 

289.  This  sound  is  commonly  represented  in  spelling 
by  ng,  or  by  n  in  the  combination  [rjg],  [rjk],  as  in  sing, 
singing,  [sin],  [sinin],  long  [Ion],  lung  [Lvn],  rang  [ran]; 
think  [0irjk],  minx  [minks],  Bronx  [brorjks],  bank  [baerjk], 
sunk  [sAnk],  monk  [mAnk],  monkey  ['mArjki],  distinct 
[dis'tirjkt],  tincture  ['tinkt$9j],  function  ['fAnk$on],  [fAnk- 
t$an],  conch  [korjk],  etc.  On  the  omission  of  [k]  or  [t]  in 
the  combination  [nkt$],  see  §§  267,  339. 

290.  The  prefix  in-  when  stressed  and  followed  by  [k] 
is  pronounced  [in-]  or  [in-],  as  in  income  ['invkAm]  or 
[/inxkAm],  incubus  ['inkjubos]  or  ['inkjubas],  incubate 
['mkjuNbe-t]  or  ['inkjuxbe-t];  so  also  with  in-  followed  by 
qu,  as  in  inquest  ['inkwest]  or  ['inkwest].  The  pronun- 
ciation of  inquiry  [in'kwain]  with  stress  on  the  first  syl- 
lable, giving  ['mkwiri]  or  ['inkwiri],  is  not  current  in 
standard  English. 

291.  The  prefix  con-  followed  by  [gr]  is  pronounced 
[kan-]  when  it  bears  a  stress,  as  in  congress  ['kangres], 
congregate  ['karjgrfge-t],  congruous  ['kangruas];  but 
when  not  stressed  it  usually  becomes  [kan-],  as  in  con- 
gressional [kan'grejanol],  congruity  [kon'gruiti].  In  con- 
gregational a  pronunciation  [kan-]  may  persist  because 
in  polysyllables  of  this  type  the  first  syllable  bears  a  sec- 
ondary stress. 

For  Congreve,  Conger,  Congo,  the  usual  pronunciations 
are  ['kar/griv],  ['kangai],  ['karpgou]. 

292.  Followed  by  [k],  the  pronunciation  of  con-  varies 
indifferently  between  [kan-]  and  [kan-],  as  in  concave 
['kanxke-v]  or  ['karpke-v],  concubine  ['kankjubain]  or 
['kankjubain],  conclave  ['kanNkle-v]  or  ['kanxkle-v],  con- 


114  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

cord  fkan^kojd]  or  ['karpkoid],  concourse  ['kan^kojs]  or 
['karfkojs],  concrete  ['kanNkrit]  or  fkar/krit]. 

293.  Before  qu  [kw],  gu  [gw],  n  is  pronounced  [rj]  by- 
some  speakers,  [n]  by  others,  as  in  banquet  ['bsen^kwet]  or 
['baer/kwet],  Banquo  ['bsen^kwo]  or  ['baerpkwol,  lingual 
['lmgwol]  or  ['lirjgwol],  linguistic  [lin'gwistik]  or  [lir/gwis- 
tik],  etc.,  with  the  preference  perhaps  in  favor  of  the  pro- 
nunciations with  [n].  In  conquer  ['karjkaj],  conqueror 
['karjkoraj],  where  qu  is  [k],  the  value  of  n  is  always  [n], 
but  in  conquest  forms  with  [n]  and  [rj]  both  appear. 

294.  Before  [0],  [rj]  often  becomes  [n]  in  popular  speech 
in  length  [lerj0],  lengthen  ['lerj0an],  strength  [strerj0], 
strengthen  ['strerj0an],  which  are  pronounced  [len0], 
['len0an],  [stren0],  ['stren0an]. 

295.  A  final  unstressed  [n]  is  sometimes  pronounced 
[rj]  in  dialect  speech,  as  in  kitchen  ['kitjirj],  chicken 
['t$ikirj],  garden  ['gardirj],  etc.,  so  also  facetiously  in 
heavens  ['hevirjz]. 

296.  In  dialect  speech  and  sometimes  also  in  collo- 
quial cultivated  speech,  final  unstressed  [rj]  becomes  [n], 
especially  in  present  participles,  as  in  singing  ['sin in],  doing 
['duin],  saying  ['seim],  etc.  This  pronunciation  is  more 
generally  heard  in  cultivated  speech  in  England  than  in 
America.  In  both  countries,  however,  the  authority  of 
academic  opinion  is  strongly  against  it. 

297.  A  final  [rj]  sometimes  becomes  [rjk]  in  dialect 
speech,  as  nothing  [/nA0irjk],  singing  ['sirjirjk],  anything 
['enix0ink].  This  pronunciation  appears  in  America 
chiefly  in  the  larger  cities  and  in  speakers  of  foreign  birth 


BOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  115 

or  tradition.  It  is  more  common  in  unstressed  than  in 
stressed  syllables,  but  pronunciations  like  [kink]  for  king 
may  even  be  heard. 

[pi 

298.  An  orthographic  p  is  silent  in  comptroller  [kon- 
'troilai],  psalm  [saim],  pseudo-  ['suido-],  psychology 
[sai'kated3i],  pneumatic  [nju'msetik],  pterodactyl  [tero- 
'daektil],  ptomaine  ['toixme-n],  ptarmigan  ['taumigan], 
raspberry  ['rsez^ben],  ['ra:zvben].  The  pronunciation  of 
corp  is  [koi],  plural  corps  [kojz],  but  in  corpse  [kojps]  the 
p  is  sounded.  In  cupboard  ['kAbajd]  the  p  is  not  sounded 
and  may  be  said  to  have  been  assimilated  to  the  following 
b.    The  word  clapboard  shows  the  same  change. 

299.  On  the  other  hand,  some  speakers  insert  a  [p] 
between  m  and  a  continuant  consonant  where  no  [p]  is 
present  in  orthography  or  in  standard  speech,  as  in 
warmth  [wojmpfl],  lymph  [limpf],  camphor  ['kaempfai], 
symphony  ['simpfoni],  samphire  ['ssemp^faiai],  Humphrey, 
Humphries,  ['hAmpfri],  ['hAmpfriz].  The  spelling  ph  in 
these  words  may  partly  account  for  the  pronunciation  of 
a  [p]  in  them,  though  this  spelling  is  of  course  only  one  of 
the  English  ways  of  recording  [f].  A  more  probable  expla- 
nation, however,  is  that  a  [p]  is  necessarily  produced  when 
the  breath  is  allowed  to  issue  after  the  formation  of  [m] 
and  the  tongue  and  lip  formation  for  a  different  consonant 
are  not  immediately  assumed.  In  the  same  way  a  [p]  is 
sometimes  present  in  dreamt  [dremt],  giving  [drempt]. 
See  §  359  for  ph  pronounced  [p]  in  the  combination  phth. 

300.  In  the  orthographic  combination  mp  followed  by 
a  consonant,  a  [p]  is  generally  pronounced,  as  in  unkempt 
[vAn'kempt],  limped  [limpt],  stamped  [stsempt],  glimpse 


116  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

[glimps],  lamps  [laemps],  assumption  [a'sAmp$an],  etc., 
but  some  speakers  tend  to  omit  the  [p]  in  these  combina- 
tions, pronouncing  [\\n'kemt],  [limt],  [stsemt],  [glims], 
[a'sAmJan],  etc.  To  most  persons  these  seem  rather  care- 
less pronunciations. 

In  the  place  names  Hampshire,  Hampden,  Hampton, 
the  p  is  usually  silent. 

M,  M 

301.  On  the  different  varieties  of  r,  see  §§  39-44. 
Especially  in  the  East  and  South,  [j]  is  regularly  omitted 

by  many  speakers  before  other  consonants  and  finally,  as 
in  party  ['paiti],  large  [laid3],  far  [fa:],  cur  [kAi],  war  [wai]. 
But  when  stressed  [j]  is  omitted  finally  it  often  leaves  a 
trace  of  its  existence  in  a  weak  [a],  as  in  for,  four  ['foia], 
there  ['t5e:a],  fear  ['fi:a],  fire  ['faia],  fur  ['fAia],  war  ['woia], 
cur  ['kAia],  far  [rfa:a]. 

302.  When  [j]  is  omitted  before  a  consonant,  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  if  not  already  long,  is  lengthened,  and  the 
difference  in  length  may  then  be  the  only  distinguishing 
feature  between  two  such  words  as  cart  [ka:t]  and  cot 
[kat],  hard  [ha id]  and  hod  [had],  part  [pa:t]  and  pot  [pat]. 
But  between  father  and  farther  no  phonetic  distinction 
would  exist,  both  being  ['fa  :5a];  so  also  fought  and  fort 
might  both  be  [foit],  caught  and  court  might  be  [koit], 
sought  and  sort  might  be  [so  it],  laud  and  lord  might  be 
[laid],  etc.  In  Southern  speech  the  sound  of  o  before  r 
and  a  consonant  frequently  becomes  a  vowel  between 
[oi]  and  [o:],  which  may  be  described  as  a  front  [ox].  In 
this  pronunciation  lord  lies  between  laud  and  load  and 
distinct  from  both.  So  also  in  words  with  r  final,  as  in 
tore,  the  pronunciation  of  which  suggests  taw  or  toe,  but 
is  appreciably  different  to  the  ear. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      117 

303.  For  burst  a  popular  form  without  [j]  is  generally 
current,  but  is  pronounced  [bAst],  whereas  the  cultivated 
pronunciation  is  either  [baist]  or  [bAist].  Similar  pro- 
nunciations like  nurse  [nAs],  first  [fAst],  curse  [kAs], 
pursy  fpAsi],  purslane  ['pAsli],  are  to  be  heard  only  in 
dialect  and  popular  speech. 

304.  For  iron  and  derivatives  the  only  current  pronun- 
ciations are  ['aiam],  ['aian].  A  parallel  pronunciation  for 
apron  ['eipajn],  however,  is  dialectal,  the  standard  form 
being  ['eipran].  For  irony  the  pronunciation  is  ['aironi]. 
For  tired  the  standard  pronunciation  is  ['taiaid]  or  ftaiad], 
and  so  with  similar  words,  such  as  fired,  hired,  wired,  etc. 

305.  At  the  end  of  words  after  vowels,  in  unstressed 
and  after  [o:]  in  stressed  syllables,  an  [j]  is  often  added 
which  is  not  present  in  spelling  or  in  standard  use,  as  in 
idea  [ai'diaj],  window  [\vindsi],  Hannah  ['hsenai],  Noah 
fnoiai],  etc.  This  is  most  likely  to  take  place  when  the 
word  is  followed  by  another  word  beginning  with  a 
vowel,  but  the  pronunciation  is  not  limited  to  such  com- 
binations. Pronunciations  like  [drou],  [sou]  for  draw 
[dro:],  saw  [so:],  occur  only  in  illiterate  or  dialect  speech, 
but  one  often  hears  [ai'diai],  ['windai],  ['haenaj],  etc., 
especially  in  New  England,  in  the  speech  of  cultivated 
persons.  They  are  localisms,  however,  not  to  be  recom- 
mended for  imitation.  In  dialect  speech  an  r  is  often 
inserted  before  a  consonant  after  [oi],  as  in  chalk,  pro- 
nounced [t$ouk],  dog,  pronounced  [doug],  soft,  pronounced 
[souft],  etc.  For  standard  wash  [wo$],  Washington 
['wojintan],  popular  speech  often  has  [wouj],  ['woujintan]. 
In  such  words  [j]  probably  arises  from  the  diphthongal 
pronunciation  of  [oi],  see  §  70. 


118  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

306.  Between  vowels,  [r]  is  omitted  dialectally  and 
also  by  some  educated  speakers  in  a  kind  of  feeble  re- 
fined pronunciation  which  is  not  general  in  any  locality, 
but  is  characteristic  rather  of  individuals  or  small  family 
groups,  as  in  ['veil]  for  very,  ['ken]  for  carry,  ['oial]  for  oral, 
['fAii]  for  furry,  etc.  This  pronunciation  is  caused  by 
failure  to  bring  the  tongue  after  the  pronunciation  of  the 
preceding  vowel  to  the  position  required  by  [r],  and  in 
most  instances  is  probably  a  survival  of  infantile  pro- 
nunciations in  which  the  movements  of  the  organs  of 
speech  were  under  imperfect  command.  Somewhat 
similar  is  the  omission  of  [r]  in  hundred,  pronounced 
['hAndad],  and  the  first  [r]  in  February,  pronounced 
['febaVen],  for  standard  ['hAndrad],  ['febru^en].  For 
February  there  is  also  a  pronunciation  ['febju^en]  which 
is  probably  in  part  due  to  the  analogy  of  January 
['d38enjuxen],  and  is  not  infrequently  heard  in  culti- 
vated speech.  The  pronunciation  of  library  ['laibren] 
as  ['laiberi]  is  juvenile  and  dialectal. 

307.  In  popular  speech,  [i]  is  also  omitted  before  con- 
sonants, especially  in  unstressed  syllables,  as  in  com- 
fortable, surprised,  particular,  pronounced  ['kAmfotabl], 
[sa'praizd],  [po'tikjutei],  Saturday,  pronounced  ['saetadi]. 
Also  in  some  stressed  syllables,  as  in  cartridge,  pronounced 
['ksetnd3],  partridge,  pronounced  ['psetrid3]. 

[s] 

308.  The  sound  of  [s]  is  represented  in  the  ordinary 
spelling  by  s,  ss,  c,  sc,  x  [ks],  as  in  yes  [jes],  best  [best], 
miss  [mis],  mistress  f'mistris],  wasp  [wosp],  rice  [rais], 
except  [ek'sept],  accept  [aek'sept],  ceiling  ['siilirj],  cinc- 
ture ['sirjktjaj],  cinch  [smt$],  circle  fsaikl],  service  f'sajvis], 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  119 

tax  [tseks],  buxom  ['bAksam],  scythe  [saitS],  scene  [si in], 
scissors  [rsiz9jz].  The  spelling  of  scissors  is  exceptional 
in  two  respects,  in  the  spelling  sc  in  a  native  English 
word  for  [s],  and  ss  for  [z].  In  schism  and  derivatives, 
sch  is  pronounced  [s],  [sizm]. 
For  si,  ssi,  su,  ssu,  pronounced  [$],  see  §  327. 

309.  The  value  of  c  is  [s]  regularly  before  e,  i,  y,  as  in 
cell  [sel],  conceit  [kan'siit],  citron  ['sitran],  decide  [di- 
'said],  cinch  [smt$],  cycle  ['saikl],  but  [k]  before  a,  o,  u,  as 
in  can  [kaen],  call  [koil],  coke  [koik],  cook  [kuk],  cup  [kAp]. 
For  sacerdotal  the  standard  pronunciation  is  Pssesai'doi- 
tal],  but  sometimes  a  Latinized  pronunciation  [saekai-] 
is  heard.  The  Old  English  proper  names  Caedmon, 
Cynewulf  are  pronounced  ['kaedman],  ['kiniVulf].  For 
Celt,  Celtic,  Cymric  both  [kelt],  ['keltik],  ['kimrik]  and 
[selt],  ['seltik],  ['simrik]  occur. 

310.  In  the  combination  stl,  the  s  is  usually  voiceless, 
as  in  gristle  fgrisl],  thistle  ['0isl],  whistle  ['misI],  etc.,  but 
some  speakers  say  ['mizPtou]  for  mistletoe  ['misPtou]. 
For  grisly  the  standard  pronunciation  is  ['grisli]. 

311.  For  greasy  the  common  pronunciation  is  ['griizi], 
but  some  speakers  carry  over  the  consonant  of  the  noun 
grease  [griis]  to  the  adjective,  pronouncing  the  adjective 
['griisi].  A  distinction  is  sometimes  made  in  the  meaning 
of  ['griisi]  and  ['grirzi],  the  latter  being  regarded  as  a 
word  of  unpleasant  connotation.  Popular  usage  and,  in 
general,  standard  speech  have  only  the  form  with  [z], 

312.  For  rise  (noun)  a  pronunciation  [rais]  is  some- 
times heard  to  distinguish  the  noun  from  the  verb  [raiz], 
but  the  common  pronunciation  is  [raiz]  for  both  noun 
and  verb.    In  some  words,  however,  [s]  is  distinctive  for 


120  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

noun,  [z]  for  verb  function,  as  in  advice  [aed'vais],  advise 
[aed'vaiz];  device  [di'vais],  devise  [di'vaiz];  abuse  [o'bjuis], 
abuse  (verb)  [a'bjuiz];  use  [ju:s],  use  (verb)  Quiz];  grease 
[griis],  grease  (verb)  [griiz].  For  sacrifice  the  common 
pronunciation  is  ['saekri^fais]  for  both  noun  and  verb,  but 
['saeknNfaiz]  is  occasionally  heard  for  the  verb.  For  close 
as  verb  the  pronunciation  is  [kloiz],  as  adjective,  adverb 
and  noun  (as  in  ' cathedral  close')  the  pronunciation  is 
[klois].    In  recluse  [n'kluis]  the  s  is  voiceless. 

313.  The  pronunciation  of  Missouri  is  commonly 
[miz'uin],  though  [mi'suiri]  is  sometimes  heard.  The 
accented  vowel  may  be  [u]. 

314.  In  Louisville,  St.  Louis,  Illinois  and  other  proper 
names  in  which  a  French  tradition  survives,  pronuncia- 
tions both  with  and  without  s  are  generally  current.  In 
New  Orleans  the  final  s  is  always  pronounced,  the  stress 
being  on  the  first  syllable,  as  in  Pnju  'oxbnz].  The  pro- 
nunciation [Nnju  oj'liinz]  is  dialectal.  In  Des  Moines 
[di'mom]  neither  s  is  sounded.  In  Illinois  when  the  final 
consonant  is  pronounced  it  is  voiced.  In  New  Orleans 
the  two  vowel  letters  of  the  final  syllable  may  be  given 
separate  quality,  as  in  Pnju  'oilionz]. 

315.  In  ambergris,  though  the  word  is  of  French  origin, 
the  final  s  is  always  sounded,  and  the  word  is  treated  as 
though  it  were  a  compound  of  amber  and  grease,  being 
pronounced  accordingly,  ['aembaj'griis].  So  also  with 
verdigris  ['vaidi'griis],  avoirdupois  [xaev9idu'poiz].  For 
bourgeois,  meaning  'middle  class/  the  pronunciation  is 
['buj3Vai],  but  as  the  name  of  a  kind  of  type  it  is 
[b9j'd30is]. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      121 

316.  Some  speakers  show  a  marked  tendency  to  sub- 
stitute [$]  for  [s],  especially  when  it  comes  before  [t],  as 
in  worst  [waast],  pronounced  [waj$t],  distressed  [dis- 
'trest],  pronounced  [dis'tre$t],  suggest  [safest],  pro- 
nounced [sa'd3e$t],  etc.  The  pronunciation  produces  a 
spluttery  untidy  effect,  which  most  persons  find  very 
disagreeable. 

317.  For  rinse  [nns],  [rmz],  popular  dialect  speech  often 
has  [rent$].  The  proper  name  Rensselaer  ['rensa^leu], 
['renslaj],  has  a  popular  form  ['rent$lai].  The  pronuncia- 
tion of  pincers  ['pmsaiz]  as  ['pint$aiz]  is  probably  the 
result  of  the  influence  of  pinch.  It  is  possible  that  the 
pronunciation  [rent$]  for  rinse  has  been  affected  by 
the  analogy  of  wrench  [rent$].  A  half-way  form,  [rens], 
is  also  heard. 

[s] 

318.  The  two  common  spellings  for  [z]  are  s  and  z, 
as  in  his  [hiz],  phase  [ferz],  despise  [di'spaiz],  misery 
['mizari],  accuse  [ae'kjuiz],  visor  ['vaizai],  Townsend 
['taunzand],  zone  [zoin],  baize  [beiz],  lazy  ['leizi],  dizzy 
['dizi],  hazard  ['haezajd],  lizard  ['lizajd],  etc.  Hard  and 
fast  rules  for  s  pronounced  [z]  cannot  be  given,  because 
general  rules  are  very  much  broken  into  by  analogical 
groupings.  Initial  s,  however,  is  never  voiced,  and  the 
spellings  c,  ss  never  stand  for  [z],  with  the  exception  of 
scissors,  see  §  308,  and  Missouri,  see  §  313.  Between 
vowels  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  voiced  consonants,  s 
tends  to  become  [z]  by  assimilation,  as  in  house  [haus], 
houses  ['hauziz],  but  the  operation  of  this  tendency  may 
be  held  in  check  by  the  influence  of  a  head  form,  as  in 
case  [keis],  cases  ['keisiz];  gas  [gses],  gases  ['gaesiz]; 
lease  [His],  leases  ['liisiz];  or  the  third  singular  of  verbs, 


122  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

like  loose  [lu:s],  looses  ['luisiz].  Likewise  in  the  posses- 
sives  of  words  ending  in  [s]  the  voiceless  sound  is  pre- 
served when  the  ending  is  added,  as  in  moose  [mu:s], 
moose's  ['muisiz]. 

319.  Inflectional  s  in  the  plurals  and  possessives  of 
nouns  and  in  the  third  singular  present  of  verbs  is  [z], 
unless  it  is  preceded  by  a  voiceless  consonant,  as  in  cows 
[kauz],  goes  [goiz],  paths  [paeftz],  wives  [waivz],  tubs 
[tAbz],  rides  [raidz];  but  cats  [ksets],  skiffs  [skifs],  myths 
[mi0s],  walks  [woiks],  steps  [steps],  etc. 

320.  For  Mrs.  the  common  pronunciation  is  the  same 
as  for  misses,  that  is,  fmisaz]  or  ['misiz],  but  occasionally 
the  final  consonant  is  voiceless,  ['misis].  The  pronuncia- 
tion with  the  medial  consonant  voiced,  as  in  ['miziz],  is 
said  to  be  a  sure  test  of  Southern  speech.1  But  the  test 
does  not  work  both  ways.  It  may  be  true  that  ['miziz]  is 
always  Southern,  but  it  is  not  true  that  all  Southerners 
say  ['miziz].  In  Southern  pronunciation  Mrs.  is  often 
monosyllabic,  being  merely  [miz],  with  perhaps  the  final 
consonant  prolonged. 

321.  Words  in  which  a  stressed  s  after  a  vowel  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  ending  -ive  usually  have  [s],  but  sometimes 
[z],  as  in  abusive,  conclusive,  corrosive,  diffusive,  evasive, 
persuasive,  incisive.  The  pronunciation  with  s  is  to  be 
preferred.  After  n,  1,  r,  when  s  is  under  the  stress  it  re- 
mains as  [s],  as  in  pensive,  defensive,  expansive,  impulsive, 
discursive. 

322.  Intervocalic  s  in  unstressed  syllables  when  it  is 
not  [$]  or  [3]  (see  §§  327  (e),  328  ff.),  usually  is  pronounced 

1  Read,  Dialect  Notes,  III,  524  (1911). 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      123 

[z],  as  in  comparison,  jettison,  unison,  venison,  though 
sometimes  [s]  in  all  these  words. 

The  usual  pronunciation  of  usage  is  ['juisids],  the  voice- 
less [s]  being  maintained  by  the  stress.  But  ['juizid3] 
also  is  heard. 

323.  In  newspaper  the  less  usual  pronunciation  is 
['njuiz^pe-paa],  in  agreement  with  the  uncompounded 
form  news  [nju:z].  Generally,  the  voiced  [z]  is  assimi- 
lated to  the  voiceless  [p],  giving  ['njus^pe-poj]. 

324.  In  Chinese,  Japanese,  Maltese,  Siamese,  Sou- 
danese, etc.,  the  final  syllable  is  usually  [-i-z],  especially 
when  the  words  stand  in  adjective  position  and  are  con- 
sequently lightly  stressed,  as  in  Siamese  twins  ['saromi-z 
'twrnz].  As  the  name  of  a  people,  for  example,  the 
Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  words  are  more  heavily 
stressed  and  are  often  pronounced  with  a  voiceless  con- 
sonant, [So  t$ai'niis],  [So  d3a3po'niis]. 

325.  For  Kansas,  Arkansas,  the  pronunciation  is  ['kaen- 
zos],  [ai'ksenzos],  rarely  with  [s]  for  the  first  consonant 
of  the  last  syllable;  but  the  pronunciation  of  Arkansas 
as  ['ajkon^soi]  is  the  one  accepted  in  the  state  and  in 
the  West  generally.  For  Texas  the  usual  pronunciation  is 
['teksos],  less  often  ['teksoz]. 

326.  The  pronunciation  of  czar  (sometimes  spelled 
tzar)  and  derivatives  is  [zau].  In  a  few  words,  especially 
Greek  proper  names,  x  is  pronounced  [z],  as  in  Xenophon 
['zenofon],  Xanthippe  [zsen'trpi],  Xerxes  ['zojksiz],  Xavier 
['zeivioj],  Xebec  ['ziibek].  In  avoirdupois  the  final  con- 
sonant is  always  pronounced  [z],  see  §  315. 


124  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

IS] 

327.  This  sound  is  of  very  wide  occurrence  in  the  lan- 
guage and  can  best  be  treated  under  the  heads  of  its 
various  orthographic  representations. 

(a)  s  =  [$]  in  sugar  ['$ug9j],  sure  [$uj],  [$U9j],  and  de- 
rivatives of  sure.  The  sound  is  not  standard  in  any 
other  words  of  this  type,  though  occasionally  heard  in 
pronunciations  like  assume  [V$u:m]  for  [a'suim],  [o'sjuim], 
['Suimaek]  for  sumach  ['suimaek],  especially  in  dialect 
speech. 

(6)  sh  =  [$],  as  in  ship  [$ip],  fish  [fi$],  ashen  ['&$an], 
shackle  ['$aekl],  fashion  ['fae$on],  and  a  large  number  of 
other  words. 

(c)  sch=[$],  but  only  in  a  few  words  of  foreign  origin, 
as  in  schottish,  schottische  ['$crti$L  schist  [$ist],  a  term  in 
geology,  schnapps  [Jnaeps].  For  schedule,  see  §  263;  for 
schism,  see  §  308.    Ordinarily  sch  =  sk  [sk]. 

(d)  ch  =  [$],  especially  in  words  of  French  origin  or 
words  influenced  by  French  pronunciation,  as  in  chef 
[$ef],  chalet  [$2e'lei],  chevalier  [$ev9'li9j],  cheval  [$e'vael], 
chauvinism  [^ojvinizm],  chandelier  [v$a3nda/li9j],  charade 
[$a'reid],  chic  [$ik],  chassis  [Sae'sii],  champagne  [$aem'pein], 
chiffonier  [Jifa'niaj]  (very  commonly  also  [$ef-]),  chauffeur 
['So  if 9 j]  or  [$o'f9j],  chivalry  ['Sivalri],  chagrin  [$a'gnn], 
cheroot  [$9'ru:t],  chaise  [$e:z],  chamois  ['Saemwa]  (as  the 
name  of  the  animal),  ['$semi]  (as  the  name  of  the  skin  of 
commerce),  chiffon  ['$ifon],  chemise  [$e'miiz],  chicanery 
[$i'ke:niri],  mustache  [mas'tseS];  also  in  proper  names,  as 
in  Charlotte  [Vulat],  Champlain  [$aem'plein],  Charlevoix 
['Saubvoi],  Cheyenne  [r$ai'en],  Chenango  Ra'naerjgo], 
Chicago  Ri'kaigo]  or  [$i'ko:go],  Michigan  ['mrjigan],  Che- 
boygan Bi'boigan],  Chatauqua  [Ja'toikwa].  But  [$]  for  ch 
is  not  universal  in  native  American  place  names,  some 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  125 

having  [t$],  as  in  Chippewa  ['tJipiVoi],  Chillicothe  [t$ih- 
'koidi],  Chicopee  ['t$ikoNpi:],  Cherokee  ['t$erorki:],  Chatta- 
nooga [t$a3ta'nuiga]. 

For  chivalry  ['$ivaln]  and  derivatives  a  pronunciation 
[rt$iv8ln]  also  obtains  in  England,  but  is  never  heard  in 
America  except  as  a  Briticism. 

An  occasional  pronunciation  [pa'ro:$al]  is  heard  for  the 
standard  parochial  [pa'roikial]. 

(e)  Under  this  and  the  following  heads  are  grouped  in- 
stances in  which  an  original  [s]  or  [t],  followed  by  an 
unstressed  mid  or  high  front  sound,  [e],  [i]  or  [ju]  com- 
bined with  the  vowel  to  form  [$]. 

ce==[$L  as  m  ocean  ['oijan],  and  in  the  ending  -aceous, 
as  in  herbaceous  [ha/be  ijos],  crustaceous  [krAs'tez$as], 
etc.    For  oceanic  both  [oji'senik]  and  [osi'aenik]  occur. 

(/)  ci=[$],  as  in  musician  [mju'zi$an],  social  ['so:$al], 
gracious  ['grei$as],  sufficient  [sa'fijant],  ancient  ['emjant], 
also  ['emtjont],  pacient  ['pedant],  racial  ['reijal],  precious 
['prejas],  preciosity  [pre$i'ositi]. 

In  the  endings  -ciate,  -ciation,  considerable  difference 
of  usage  occurs,  the  general  tendency  of  popular  speech 
being  to  pronounce  ci  as  [$],  but  in  cultivated  speech  this 
tendency  is  sometimes  interrupted,  especially  in  formal 
discourse,  in  which  the  pronunciation  [si]  is  often  pre- 
ferred as  being  nearer  to  the  spelling,  as  in  enunciate 
[i'nAn$iVt]  or  [I'nAnsiVt],  associate  and  derivatives 
[a'so:$iVt]  or  [a'soisiVt],  pronunciation  [pro^nAn^i'e.'San] 
(but  perhaps  more  commonly  [prornAnsi'e:$an],  either  from 
a  desire  to  distinguish  ci  and  ti  in  the  word,  or  it  may  be 
because  one  is  likely  to  be  self-conscious  in  pronouncing 
this  word),  officiate  [o'fr$iVt]  or  [o'fisiVt],  emaciated 
[i'me:$ixetad]  or  [i'me:siVtad],  appreciate  [ae'prii$ie-t],  ap- 
preciation [aepri$i'ei$an]  or  [a3prisi'ei$an].    In  words  like 


126  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

appreciation,  enunciation,  association,  etc.,  the  ci  is 
likely  to  be  pronounced  [si]  to  avoid  bringing  two  [$]- 
sounds  close  together. 

(g)  sci  =  [$],  as  in  conscious  ['kan$9s],  conscience  ['kan- 
$ans],  omniscient  [om'ni$9nt],  luscious  ['1a$9s]. 

In  formal  speech  instead  of  [$],  sometimes  [si]  is  heard 
for  sci,  especially  in  learned  words,  like  omniscient  [om- 
'msi9nt],  prescience  ['presians]. 

{h)  si  =  [$],  as  in  mansion  ['maenjan],  dimension  [di- 
'men$9n],  transient  ['traenjont],  in  formal  speech  often 
['transient],  Asia  fei$a],  but  also  ['eisa],  fuchsia  ['fjuijo]. 
In  transient  the  consonant  is  sometimes  voiced,  giving 
['traen39nt].  In  Persia  ['P9139]  it  is  always  voiced.  See 
§  333  (a). 

The  variant  spelling  x  for  [ks]  appears  in  noxious 
['nakjas],  anxious  ['aerjkjas].  For  axiom  the  standard 
pronunciation  is  ['aeksiam],  the  general  tendency,  which 
would  produce  ['aek$am],  being  held  in  check  by  the 
learned  character  of  the  word. 

(i)  se  =  [$],  as  in  nausea  ['noi$a]  and  derivatives,  but 
also  pronounced  ['noijia],  ['noisia],  ['no  130],  ['no  1310], 
['noizia]. 

(j)  su  =  [$],  the  vowel  also  persisting,  as  in  insular  ['m- 
Sutei],  peninsula  [pen'm$ula],  sensual  ['senjuel],  sexual 
['sekjual],  consular  ['kanjulaj],  luxury  ['lAkJari],  less  fre- 
quently ['lAg59n]. 

In  all  these  words,  which  differ  from  those  under  (a) 
in  that  s  is  followed  by  u  in  an  unstressed  syllable,  pro- 
nunciations with  [sj]  also  occur,  as  in  ['msjulai],  ['sensjual], 
etc.,  especially  in  formal  and  conscious  speech.  It  is  the 
[j]  element  in  [ju]  that  causes  the  [s]-sound  to  become  [$]. 

(k)  ssi  =  [$],  as  in  mission  ['mijan],  passion  ['pae$an], 
discussion    [dis'kAjan],    confession    [kan'fe$an],    Ossian 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  127 

['o$an]  or  in  careful  pronunciation  ['o$ian],  Russia  frA$a], 
Prussia  ['prA$a], 

(I)  ssu  =  [$],  the  vowel  also  persisting,  as  in  issue  ['r$u], 
tissue  ['ti$u],  fissure  ['fi$uj]  or  ['fijaj],  pressure  ['pre$ui]  or 
['pre$9i],  commissure  ['kami^ui],  a  term  in  biology. 

A  careful  pronunciation,  as  in  ['isju]  or  ['r$ju],  is  some- 
times cultivated  in  these  words,  see  also  under  (j).  On 
the  other  hand,  a  slighter  colloquial  form  is  also  to  be 
observed,  as  in  ['ti$a]  for  tissue,  especially  as  adjective  in 
the  phrase  tissue  paper. 

(m)  te  =  [t$],  as  in  righteous  ['rait$as],  sometimes  also 
courteous  ['k9jt$8s],  though  more  commonly  ['kajtias]. 
Other  words  in  -eous,  as  duteous,  piteous,  plenteous, 
bounteous,  beauteous,  have  only  the  pronunciation  ['dju- 
tias],  etc.,  in  agreement  with  their  head  forms  duty,  pity, 
plenty,  bounty,  beauty. 

In  amateur  the  stress  falls  in  cultivated  speech  on  the 
last  syllable,  [aema'taj],  but  quite  generally  in  familiar 
speech,  especially  in  such  phrases  as  "  amateur  theatri- 
cals," "amateur  standing,"  etc.,  the  stress  is  on  the  first 
syllable,  giving  ['sematjaj]. 

(n)  ti  =  [$],  as  in  position  [pa'zrjanj,  nation  ['neijan], 
essential  [I'senjal],  Titian  ['ti$an],  rational  ['rsejanal],  ratio 
fre:$o],  sentient  ['senjant],  though  also  ['sentient]  as  a 
learned  word. 

For  otiose,  otium,  the  recognized  dictionary  pronun- 
ciations are  [o$i'o:s],  ['oijiam],  but  the  words  are  not  cur- 
rent in  colloquial  use,  and  for  that  reason  most  speakers 
when  compelled  to  pronounce  them  would  follow  the 
spelling. 

For  ratiocination  both  [Vsetiosi'neijan]  and  [xrae$iosi- 
'nei$an]  are  in  good  use. 

In  words  like  differentiation,  negotiation,  substantia- 


128  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

tion,  the  first  ti  is  often  pronounced  [si]  and  the  second 
[$],  perhaps  from  a  disinclination  to  have  two  [$]-sounds 
close  together,  see  above,  under  (/).  In  differentiation 
the  influence  of  difference  may  also  be  of  some  weight. 
In  differentiate,  negotiate,  substantiate,  the  value  of  ti 
is  commonly  [§i],  and  it  remains  so  with  probably  the 
majority  of  speakers  in  differentiation,  etc. 

When  ti  is  preceded  by  [s],  the  [t]  assibilates  to  [$],  but 
at  the  same  time  remains  as  [t]  to  avoid  the  juxtaposi- 
tion of  [s]  and  [$],  as  in  question  ['kwest$an],  suggestion 
[s8'd3est$on],  Christian  ['knst$on],  etc.  The  pronunciation 
['kristian]  is  very  formal.    See  §  339. 

When  ti  is  preceded  by  [n],  ordinarily  the  ti  is  pro- 
nounced [$],  as  in  mention  ['menjon],  attention  [a'ten$on], 
convention  [kon'venjon],  etc.;  but  when  a  word  is  strongly 
stressed,  the  sound  may  become  [t$],  as  in  Don't  even 
mention  it  [doint  iivn  'mentjan  it],  or  in  attention  as  a 
military  command,  which  is  reduced  merely  to  the  final 
syllable  [t$An],  with  of  course  heavy  stress.  In  such 
words  the  organic  position  for  [t]  is  already  assumed  for 
the  pronunciation  of  [n],  and  the  special  emphasis  merely 
carries  over  the  continuant  [n]  to  a  stop  [t]. 

The  history  of  these  words  in  ti  runs  parallel  in  every- 
thing except  orthography  to  words  in  si.  Words  of  this 
type  were  first  introduced  into  the  language  from  French 
in  the  early  Middle  English  period,  and  at  the  time  of 
their  appearance  in  the  language  they  had  already  ac- 
quired in  French  a  pronunciation  [si].  This  pronuncia- 
tion Modern  French  still  retains  in  words  like  nation, 
intention,  etc.  Sometimes  in  the  earlier  periods  one  finds 
t  replaced  by  c  in  spelling,  as  in  nacion  for  nation  ['naesion]. 
The  influence  of  Latin  orthography,  however,  was  strong 
enough  to  prevent  the  carrying  through  of  this  rationaliz- 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE  129 

ing  process  in  spelling,  which  would  have  resulted  in  a 
consistent  spelling  with  c  or  s  for  t  in  words  of  this  type. 
Instead  a  certain  amount  of  inconsistency  now  appears  in 
English  spelling,  as  in  (in)tention  and  (ex)  tension,  vicious 
and  vitiate,  both  of  these  being  pairs  of  etymologically  the 
same  word,  or  mention  and  (di)mension,  etymologically 
different,  but  phonetically  the  same.  Occasionally  words 
with  cti  are  written  with  x,  as  in  connection,  connexion 
[ka'nek$on],  inflection,  inflexion  [rn'flek$9n],  etc. 

(o)  tu  =  [t$],  as  in  nature  ['neit$9i],  feature  ['fiit$9j], 
creature  ['kriitjai],  moisture  ['moist$9i],  fortune  ['fojtjan], 
actual  ['aektjual],  virtuous  ['v9jt$u8s],  furniture  ['fajnitjaj], 
etc.  Formal  pronunciations,  e.g.,  ['neit$uj],  ['fiit$ui],  etc., 
may  occur. 

For  literature  and  other  words  of  three  or  four  syllables 
which  may  have  a  secondary  stress  on  the  final  syllable, 
two  pronunciations  occur,  [/litorat$9i]  or  ['litoroHjuj],  the 
latter  being  the  more  formal  and  careful  style. 

The  influence  of  manufacture  [maenju'faekt$9i]  often 
produces  a  popular  pronunciation  [maenju'faekt^n]  for 
manufactory,  which  in  standard  pronunciation  is  always 
[maenju'f  sektan] . 

The  change  of  tu  to  [t$]  implies  a  pronunciation  of  u  as 
[iu]  or  [ju],  that  is,  ['neitjui],  ['fiitjui],  etc.  This  pronun- 
ciation is  historically  recorded,  and  it  was  not  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  com- 
bination [tju]  became  [t$u]  in  generally  accepted  English. 
In  fact,  [tju]  may  still  be  heard  occasionally  in  formal 
pronunciation.  It  was  perhaps  natural  for  the  [t]  to  be 
retained,  since  it  was  pronounced,  even  when  with  the 
following  sound  it  produced  a  [$],  giving  for  older  nature 
['neitjui]  the  pronunciation  ['neitjuj].  In  a  word  like 
nation,  however,  it  was  pointed  out  above  that  the  t  was 


130  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

never  sounded  as  [t]  in  English,  but  only  as  [s],  and  the 
combination  therefore  developed  as  si  into  [$].  If  nation 
and  similar  words  had  come  into  the  language  with  t 
sounded,  for  example  ['neition],  no  doubt  a  pronunciation 
['ne:t$9n]  would  have  resulted  instead  of  ['nei$an];  and  so 
also  with  [t$]  for  other  words  of  this  type.  In  short,  the 
development  of  tu  into  [t$]  is  a  relatively  late  and  exclu- 
sively English  process,  whereas  the  development  of  ti 
into  [$]  is  not  what  it  seems  to  be,  but  merely  the  develop- 
ment of  a  French  [si]  into  [$]. 

The  pronunciation  of  u  in  the  combination  tu  as  [u], 
not  [ju],  resulted  merely  in  a  weakening  of  the  vowel 
without  any  change  in  the  character  of  the  preceding 
consonant.  Thus  arose  dialect  pronunciations  like 
critter  for  creature,  nater,  nateral  for  nature,  natural, 
etc. 

When  the  combination  tu  is  under  the  stress,  it  remains 
[tju],  as  in  mature  [mo'tjui]  or  [ma'tjuj],  institute  (noun) 
['mstftjut],  institution  [insti'tjujan],  astute  [ses'tjuit],  and 
in  initial  stressed  syllables,  as  in  tuber,  Tudor,  tunic, 
tutor,  and  the  monosyllables  tube  and  tune.  Even  in 
these  stressed  syllables  the  combination  tu  was  formerly 
pronounced  [t$u],  but  this  is  heard  now  only  as  a  humor- 
ous pronunciation. 

[3] 

328.  This  is  the  voiced  equivalent  of  [$]  and  is  ortho- 
graphically  represented  by  j,  g  =  [d3],  or  by  s  or  z  before 
unstressed  i  or  u,  often  also  by  d  before  unstressed  i  or  u. 

329.  As  the  second  element  of  the  compound  sound 
[ds],  this  consonant  appears  in  join  [d30in],  judge  [d3Ad3], 
gem  [d3em],  gage  [ge:d3],  suggest  [safest],  allege 
[9'led3],  ledge  [led3],  bridge  [bnd3],  magic  ['maed3ik]. 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  131 

330.  For  malinger  the  standard  pronunciation  is 
[ma'lindsQj],  though  occasionally  speakers  are  led  to 
pronounce  the  word  as  though  it  were  a  variant  form  of 
linger  ['lingai]. 

331.  For  margarine,  or  the  compound  oleomargarine, 
the  common  pronunciation  is  ['ma  ud39nn]  or  ['ma:.id39- 
Viin],  the  historically  correct  pronunciation  ['maugarm] 
being  now  rarely  heard. 

332.  For  longevity,  longitude,  the  pronunciation  is 
always  [hn'd3eviti],  ['lond3ixtjuid].  For  gibber,  gibber- 
ing, it  may  be  ['d3ib9j],  ['d3iD9rirj]  or  ['gibaj],  ['gibgrirj], 
but  for  gibberish  it  is  always  ['gib9ri$].  In  gibbet,  gibe, 
giblets,  gill  (quarter  pint),  gin  (shortened  form  of  engine 
and  also  shortened  form  of  Geneva),  ginseng,  gist,  the 
initial  consonant  is  always  [d3].  A  dictionary  should  be 
consulted  for  a  list  of  the  words  containing  g  before  front 
vowels. 

333.  Other  occurrences  of  [3]  are: 

(a)  si  =  [3],  as  in  derision  [di'ri39n],  vision  ['vi39n], 
fusion  [rfjui39n],  abrasion  [9'brei39n],  occasion  [g'ke^gn], 
erosion  [I'ro^n],  osier  ['0:39.1],  Frasier  ['frei39j]  or  ['frei- 
3J9j],  hosier  ['ho  1391]  or  [/ho:3J9j],  gymnasium  [d3im'nei- 
39m],  symposium  [sim'po^m],  though  for  these  last  two 
words  a  learned  pronunciation  [-zi9m]  is  also  heard. 

(b)  zi  =  [3],as  in  glazier  ['gle  139.1]  or  [;gle:3J9j],  also  written 
glasier,  Frazier  ['fre  139.1]  or  ['fre:3J9i]. 

(c)  su  =  [3],  with  the  vowel  also  persisting,  as  in  treasure 
[rtre39j],  pleasure  ['ple39j],  leisure  ['le39i]  or  ['li  139.1], 
closure  ['kloi39j],  erasure  [i're:39j];  usual  [rju:3U9l]  or 
['ju:5Ju9l],  visual  [Vi5U9l]  or  [V13JU9I],  casual  ['kae3JU9l] 
or  ['ksezju9lj. 


132  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

The  standard  pronunciation  of  Jesuit  is  ['d3ezjuit],  less 
commonly  ['d3e3Juit]. 

In  luxurious  the  standard  pronunciation  is  [lAg'3uri9s]. 

(d)  zu  =  [3],  in  azure  ['ei39j]  or  ['8B391]. 

(e)  di  =  [d3],  in  cordial  ['kojd39l],  soldier  ['soild39i],  and 
sometimes  in  other  words  in  -ial,  -ient,  -ious,  -ium,  as 
in  medial,  obedient,  expedient,  tedious,  medium,  radium, 
tedium,  but  usually  in  these  words  the  endings  have  the 
value  [-ial],  [-i9nt],  [-19s],  [-19m]. 

In  grandeur,  de  =  [3],  ['graendsai]. 
"  (/)  du  =  [d3u],  in  modulate  ['mad3uxle-t],  nodule  ['na- 
d3ul],  schedule  ['sked3ul],  pendulum  ['pend3ufem],  indi- 
vidual [indi'vid3U9l],  etc.  Instead  of  [d3u]  in  these  words, 
careful  and  formal  speech  often  has  [dju],  but  the  normal 
tendency  is  to  pronounce  [d3u]. 

(<j)  ti  =  [3],  in  equation  [I'kwe^n],  but  also,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  usual  value  of  ti  as  [$],  [I'kweijan].  The 
pronunciation  with  [3]  seems  to  have  arisen  by  analogy 
to  such  words  as  invasion,  abrasion,  etc. 

334.  In  some  words  of  French  origin,  g  is  pronounced 
[3],  as  in  rouge  [ru:3],  menage  [me'na:3],  cortege  [koi'te^], 
mirage  [mi'ra^],  camouflage  [vkaemu'fla:3],  persiflage 
Pp9jsi'fla:3}. 

335.  The  proper  name  Mosher  is  usually  ['11101391]. 
It  is  also  spelled  Mosier,  Mozier. 

[t] 

336.  This  sound  is  commonly  represented  by  t,  tt,  but 
also  by  d  in  the  preterites  of  many  verbs  when  the  ending 
-(e)d  is  assimilated  to  a  preceding  voiceless  consonant. 
Examples  of  [t]  are  talk  [to:k],  lettuce  ['letis],  missed 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  133 

[mist],  slipped  [slipt],  coughed  ['koift],  wished  [wi$t],  and 
hosts  of  other  words. 

337.  An  orthographic  t  is  silent  in  argot  ['augo],  depot 
fdiipo],  ballet  [bae'lei]  or  ['baeli],  buffet  [bu'fei],  chalet 
[Jae'lei],  valet  [vae'lei]  or  [Vseli],  but  more  fashionably 
now  [Vselit],  parquet  [pai'kei]  as  the  name  of  a  part  of 
a  theater,  but  [paj'ket]  as  the  name  of  a  kind  of  flooring. 
All  these  words  are  of  comparatively  recent  French 
origin.  In  trait,  final  t  is  not  pronounced  in  British  usage, 
but  in  America  it  is  always  pronounced. 

338.  In  the  orthographic  combination  -ction,  the  t  is 
silent,  as  in  perfection  [pai'fekjon],  suction  ['sAk$on], 
function  ['fAnk$on],  diction  ['dik$an],  action  ['aek$an],  etc. 
In  the  combination  -ctu-,  usage  varies  between  [kt$]  and 
[k$],  as  in  actual  ['a3kt$ual]  or  ['sekjual],  juncture  ['d3Aqk- 
t$9j]  or  ['d3Arjk$9j],  puncture  ['pArjkt$8j]  or  ['pAnk$9j], 
lecture  [lekt$9j]  or  ['lek$8j],  manufacture  [manju'f2ekt$9j] 
or  [msenju'faek^j],  etc.,  though  in  formal  and  careful 
speech  the  pronunciation  with  [t]  is  preferred. 

339.  In  the  combinations  — sti— ,  -stu-  a  [t]  is  always 
pronounced  in  cultivated  speech,  pronunciations  like 
[egz'ors$an],  ['kwesjon],  ['fiks$aj],  ['miks$8i]  for  exhaustion 
[egz'oist$an],  question  ['kwest$on],  fixture  ['fikstjai],  mix- 
ture ['mikst$9j]  being  slovenly  English. 

340.  In  the  combinations  stl,  stn,  ftn,  no  [t]  is  pro- 
nounced, as  in  epistle  [1'pisl],  thistle  ['0isl],  nestle  ['nesl], 
jostle  ['d30sl],  hustle  ['IiasI],  soften  ['sofn],  often  ['ofn], 
listen  flisn],  fasten  ['faesn],  chasten  ['t$e:sn],  moisten 
['moisn],  chestnut  ['t$esNnAt].  In  connected  discourse,  the 
combination  stn  appears  in  must  not,  which  is  commonly 
pronounced  fmAsnt],  except  in  precise  speech  where  th6 


134  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

words  are  consciously  held  apart.  In  often  there  is  some 
tendency  to  restore  the  t  in  pronunciation,  through  the 
influence  of  spelling.  But  ['ofn]  is  still  the  prevailing 
form.  In  rapid  colloquial  speech  the  combination  let  us 
frequently  becomes  [les],  e.g.,  Let  us  go  and  see  [les  go:  n 
si:]. 

341.  For  the  orthographic  combinations  nch,  lch,  a 
pronunciation  [ntfl,  [lt$]  is  generally  current,  though  less 
frequently  one  also  hears  [n$],  [1$],  as  in  pinch  [pmt$]  or 
[pin$],  bench  [bent$]  or  [ben$],  launch  [lo:nt$]  or  [lo:n$], 
filch  [filtS]  or  [MS],  belch  [belt$]  or  [bel$],  gulch  [gAlt$]  or 
[gAl$].  For  Welsh  the  spelling  usually  preserves  a  pro- 
nunciation [wel$],  but  in  the  verb  and  noun  probably 
derived  from  this  word,  meaning  to  slide  from  under 
one's  obligations,  both  spellings  occur,  welch,  welcher 
and  welsh,  welsher,  and  a  corresponding  variation  in 
pronunciation.  In  American  usage  the  pronunciation  of 
all  these  words  with  [nt$],  [lt$]  is  to  be  preferred.  See 
§  246,  For  the  combination  ns,  the  pronunciation  in 
America  is  usually  [nts],  as  in  dense  [dents],  not  distin- 
guishable from  dents,  mince  [mints],  not  distinguishable 
from  mints,  etc.  But  some  speakers  say  [dens],  [mins] 
for  dense,  mince,  etc. 

342.  A  [t]  is  often  omitted  in  the  popular  dialects  after 
[p],  as  in  [slep],  [kep],  [krep]  for  slept  [slept],  kept  [kept], 
crept  [krept]. 

343.  A  [t]  is  sometimes  added  in  popular  speech  after 
[s]  in  words  where  it  does  not  appear  in  standard  speech, 
as  in  [wAnst],  [twaist]  for  once,  twice,  [wi$t]  for  wish, 
[a'krost]  for  across,  [kloist]  for  close.  So  also  [o'taekt]  for 
attack   [a'taek].     On   the  other  hand,   [t]   is  frequently 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  135 

omitted  after  [s]  in  popular  speech,  as  in  [0I3AS],  [ris], 
[hois],  [neks]  for  just  [d3Ast],  wrist  [rist],  host  [hoist], 
next  [nekst],  etc.  In  waistcoat,  Westcott,  the  final  con- 
sonant of  the  first  syllable  is  usually  silent,  both  words 
being  pronounced  ['weskat].  But  waistcoat  is  rarely 
used  in  America,  the  common  word  being  vest.  In  locust 
few  cultivated  speakers  would  acknowledge  omitting  the 
final  consonant,  yet  in  current  speech  it  is  doubtful  if  one 
ever  hears  it. 

344.  In  the  combination  [kt],  [t]  is  sometimes  omitted 
in  the  popular  dialects,  insect  ['insekt],  contact  ['kantaekt], 
perfect  ['pejfikt],  aqueduct  ['aekwixdAkt],  becoming  ['in- 
sek],  ['kantsek],  ['paifik],  ['sekwiVlAk],  etc. 

345.  For  partner  ['pautnai],  popular  speech  often  has 
fpaudnai]. 

346.  In  asked  [aiskt],  [aeskt],  many  speakers  pronounce 
no  [t],  saying  [sesk],  especially  when  the  next  word  begins 
with  a  consonant;  or  some  speakers  omit  [k],  lengthening 
the  preceding  consonant,  as  in  [aesit].  In  no  case,  not 
even  in  the  most  formal  or  careful  speech,  are  both  a 
fully  articulated  [k]  and  [t]  pronounced.  What  happens 
in  cultivated  speech  is  that  after  [s]  the  tongue  position 
for  [k]  is  assumed,  but  is  held  without  explosion  until  the 
position  for  [t]  has  been  reached.  There  is  thus  only  one 
genuine  stop  consonant  in  asked.  Other  words  of  this 
type,  like  basked,  masked,  etc.,  are  not  in  familiar  use 
and  are  consequently  likely  to  be  pronounced  with  em- 
phasis on  the  orthographic  elements  of  the  words.  See  §  15. 

In  a  combination  like  next  time,  usually  only  one  t  is 
pronounced,  as  in  [neks  taim];  in  next  station  both  s  and 
t  of  next  are  usually  silent  in  cultivated  colloquial  speech, 


136  STANDARD    ENGLISH    IN   AMERICA 

as  in  [nek  'steijan].  And  as  a  matter  of  fact,  even  the 
[k]  is  often  not  fully  articulated;  the  stoppage  for  [k]  is 
assumed,  but  the  explosion  is  not  completed. 

In  the  spelling  eighth,  the  th  stands  for  tth,  though  the 
explosion  for  the  t  is  not  completely  made.  The  gh  being 
silent,  the  phonetic  form  of  the  word  is  approximately 
[eitfl. 

H 

347.  The  spelling  for  this  sound  is  always  th,  but  this 
spelling  stands  for  both  [0]  and  [<5],  see  §§  30,  31. 

Examples  of  [0]  are  path  [pai0],  [pse0],  thin  [0m],  faith 
[fe:0],  both  [bo:0],  month  [mAn0],  froth  [fro0],  frothy  ['fro0i], 
myth  [mi0],  mythology  [mi'0alad3i]. 

348.  A  th  of  the  spelling  is  pronounced  [t]  in  thyme 
[taim],  Thomas  ['tamos],  ['tomas],  Thompson  ['tampsan], 
['tompsan].  For  isthmus  only  ['is0mas]  is  current  in 
America,  but  in  England  both  ['is0mas]  and  ['istmas]. 
In  rapid  speech  the  word  may  become  ['ismas].  For 
Esther  the  common  pronunciation  is  ['estai],  but  occasion- 
ally also  ['es0ai].  The  Thames,  a  river  in  England  and  in 
Connecticut,  is  always  [temz].  The  proper  name  Anthony 
is  usually  ['sen0ani],  sometimes  ['aentani],  though  when 
pronounced  in  the  latter  way,  it  is  usually  made  to  con- 
form in  spelling. 

349.  In  the  combination  [f0],  [s0],  popular  speech  often 
has  [t]  for  [0],  as  in  [fift]  for  fifth  [fif0]  or  [fift0],  [sikst]  for 
sixth  [siks0]  or  [sikst0].  In  months  popular  speech  often 
omits  [0],  pronouncing  the  word  [mAns]. 

350.  For  standard  height  [halt],  popular  usage  also 
has  [hait0],  parallel  to  width,  breadth,  length. 


SOUNDS   AND   THEIR   OCCURRENCE  137 

n 

351.  This  sound  is  the  voiced  equivalent  of  [0]  and  is 
spelled  th.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  language  [?>]  oc- 
curred only  between  vowels  or  between  a  voiced  con- 
sonant and  a  vowel.  In  relatively  unstressed  position, 
however,  voiceless  continuants  tend  to  become  voiced, 
[0]  becoming  [$],  and  many  words  like  this  [t5is],  that 
[Sat],  they  [t5ei],  thou  [Sou],  then  [Sen],  than  [tSaen], 
though  [Sou],  with  [wiS],  which  are  only  slightly  stressed 
in  the  word  groups  in  which  they  occur,  have  now  [tS]  in- 
stead of  earlier  [$].  Analogy  and  the  loss  of  vowels  in 
unstressed  syllables  also  obscure  the  old  rule,  so  that  now 
[S]  appears  not  only  between  vowels,  but  also  finally  in 
words  like  bathe  [be: (5],  breathe  [briiS],  lathe  [leiS], 
clothe  [kloio*],  sheathe  [$i:t>],  wreathe  [riitS],  and  many 
others. 

352.  Singular  nouns  with  final  [0]  may  change  to  [$] 
in  the  plural,  as  in  path  [pae0],  paths  [pseftz],  bath  [bsefl], 
baths  [baetSz],  moth  [mo0],  moths  [motSz];  but  the  analogy 
of  the  singular  may  maintain  [0]  in  the  plural,  as  in  Goth 
[go0],  Goths  [go0s],  breath  [bre0],  breaths  [brefls],  death 
[de0],  deaths  [de0s].  A  plural  moths  [mo0s]  is  recorded  in 
the  dictionaries,  but  the  only  form  the  writer  has  ever 
heard  is  [mot5z]. 

353.  For  rhythm  both  [riSm]  and  [n0m]  occur,  the 
former  being  much  the  more  common.  The  same  diver- 
sity of  use  appears  in  derivatives,  as  in  rhythmic,  rhyth- 
mical, but  some  speakers  who  pronounce  [ntSm]  in  the 
simple  word,  say  ['n0mik],  [,n0mikl]  in  the  derivatives, 
the  reason  being  that  in  the  derivatives  the  consonant 
stands  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  not  between  two  voiced 
sounds,  as  in  [rrtSm]. 


138  STANDARD    ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

354.  For  asthma  the  current  formal  pronunciation  is 
['aeztSmo],  though  often  also  ['aezmo].  The  British  pro- 
nunciation is  ['aesflma],  ['aesma]  or  ['aestma]. 

355.  Before  [z],  in  popular  speech  [<5]  is  often  omitted, 
as  in  clothes  [kloiSz]  pronounced  [kloiz],  oaths  [oit5z] 
pronounced  [o:z],  etc. 

356.  In  the  popular  dialects  [0],  [8]  sometimes  com- 
pletely disappear,  being  replaced  by  [t]  and  [d],  as  in 
think  pronounced  [tink],  that  pronounced  [daet],  with 
pronounced  [wit]  or  [wid]. 

[f] 

357.  The  representation  of  [f]  in  the  ordinary  spelling 
is  f,  ff,  gh  or  ph,  as  in  find  [faind],  stiff  [stif],  sniffed 
[snift],  rough  [rAf],  cough  [ko:f],  Brough  [brAf],  laugh 
[la if],  [laef],  nephew  ['nefju],  philosophy  [fil'osafi],  sylph 
[silf].  For  lieutenant  [lu'tenant]  the  pronunciation  [lef- 
'tenant],  [lif-],  is  sometimes  heard,  but  it  is  not  general 
with  any  group  of  American  speakers.  It  is  common  in 
England.  For  nephew  both  ['nefju]  and  ['nevju]  occur, 
though  the  former  is  the  more  general  pronunciation. 
For  hiccough  the  only  pronunciation  is  ['hikap].  For  the 
history  of  this  word,  see  the  New  English  Dictionary. 

358.  In  the  connected  discourse  of  colloquial  usage,  a 
final  [v]  is  sometimes  assimilated  to  a  succeeding  voiceless 
consonant,  becoming  [f],  as  in  I  have  to  go  [a  'haef  to  'gou]. 
But  what  might  be  permissible  in  this  phrase,  is  not  per- 
missible generally,  e.g.,  one  cannot  say  I'd  love  to  go 
[aid  'L\f  ta  'gou]. 

359.  In  the  combination  phth  the  pronunciation  [f]  for 
ph  is  sometimes  replaced  by  [p],  as  in  diphthong  ['difflon] 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      139 

or  fdipflorj],  diphtheria  [dif'fliria]  or  [dip'tfina],  naphtha 
['nseffla]  or  ['naeptfa].  The  pronunciation  with  [f]  is  perhaps 
to  be  preferred,  though  usage  is  far  from  being  uniform. 
See  §  299.  For  phthisic  the  accepted  pronunciation  is 
['tizik],  but  phthisis  is  said  to  be  pronounced  ['flaisisj. 
Neither  word  is  in  common  use. 

W 

360.  This  sound  is  the  voiced  equivalent  of  [f],  and  is 
commonly  represented  by  v,  as  in  live  [liv]  (verb),  [laiv] 
(adj.),  vivid  [Vivid],  shoved  [$Avd],  dived  [daivd].  In 
nephew  fnevju]  and  Stephen  ['stiivan]  it  is  spelled  ph. 

361.  When  [f]  of  a  main  form  becomes  voiced  in  an 
inflectional  form,  the  spelling  always  changes  to  v,  as  in 
wife  [waif],  wives  [waivz],  loaf  [loif],  loaves  [loivz],  etc., 
but  wife's  [waifs],  griefs  [griifs],  laughs  [laifs],  [laefs],  third 
singular  present  of  the  verb,  or  plural  of  the  noun,  where 
the  consonant  remains  unchanged. 

Some  plurals  have  both  a  form  with  [f]  and  one  with 
[v],  as  in  hoof  [huif],  hoofs  [huifs]  or  hooves  [huivz]; 
scarf  [skauf],  scarfs  [skaufs]  or  scarves  [skauvz].  The 
plural  of  staff  is  staffs,  except  as  a  technical  term  in 
music,  where  it  is  staves  [steivz]. 

362.  In  archaic  and  poetic  style  an  intervocalic  [v]  is 
sometimes  omitted,  the  omission  being  indicated  by  the 
apostrophe,  as  in  e'er  [eiaj]  for  ever,  o'er  [oiaj]  for  over, 
etc. 

363.  The  preposition  of  usually  stands  in  unstressed 
position  and  is  pronounced  [av],  or  in  rapid  speech  [a],  as 
in  five  o'clock  [faiv  a  klak],  time  of  day  [taim  a  dei],  man 
of  war  [maen  a  won]. 


140  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN   AMERICA 

364.  Final  [v]  in  give  is  sometimes  omitted  before  [m] 
in  colloquial  speech,  give  me  ['giv  mi]  becoming  ['gi  mi]. 
This  is  spelled  in  dialect  orthography  as  gimme,  and 
though  by  no  means  limited  to  illiterate  or  dialect  use, 
under  the  influence  of  the  printed  and  written  language 
it  is  coming  to  be  more  and  more  discredited.  Cf.  let  me 
pronounced  flemi],  and  see  above,  §  100. 

[w] 

365.  The  spelling  of  this  sound  is  commonly  w,  as  in 
win  [win],  swing  [swirj],  twig  [twig],  between  [bi'twim], 
or  u,  as  in  languid  ['laeqgwid],  language  [laerj'gw^],  per- 
suade [poi'sweid],  and  u  after  q,  as  in  quire  ['kwaioi], 
question  ['kwestjon],  quack  [kwaek],  conquest  ['kankwest] 
or  ['kankwest]. 

366.  The  spelling  gu  represents  usually  [g],  as  in 
guard  [gaud],  guest  [gest],  guide  [gaid],  guess  [ges], 
guile  [gail],  etc.,  but  in  a  few  words  of  foreign  origin, 
as  in  guano  ['gwamo],  guava  ['gwaivo],  and  in  Guelph 
[gwelf],  the  u  is  pronounced. 

367.  The  sound  [w]  appears  in  one  [wAn],  once  [wAns], 
in  pronunciaton  but  not  in  spelling.  The  verb  won  and 
one  are  exact  homonyms.  A  w  appears  in  the  spelling  of 
two  [tui],  sword  [soud],  but  not  in  pronunciation.  Before 
r  a  silent  w  is  frequently  written,  as  in  wring  [nrj],  write 
[wrait],  wrap  [rsep],  wrist  [rist],  etc.  For  choir  the  pro- 
nunciation is  the  same  as  for  quire,  that  is  ['kwaioi]. 

368.  In  a  few  words  of  French  origin  the  ending  -oir 
is  pronounced  [-wai]  or  [-woi],  as  in  memoir  ['memwai], 
['memwoi],  reservoir  ['rezoiVwai],  ['rezoiVwoi] ;  but  reser- 
voir is  also  often  pronounced  without  [w],  as  ['rezaiVoiai]. 


SOUNDS  AND  THEIR  OCCURRENCE      141 

369.  An  initial  w  of  an  unstressed  syllable  following  a 
stressed  one  sometimes  weakens  and  disappears,  as  regu- 
larly in  answer  ['aensai],  and  in  the  combination  qu  in 
chequer  ftSekai],  conquer  ['karjkaj],  liquor  ['likai].  In 
compositional  syllables,  like  -ward,  -worth,  -wich,  -wick, 
which  have  a  secondary  stress  in  American  speech,  w 
is  generally  pronounced  when  written;  but  in  toward, 
towards  [toud],  [toudz]  the  words  are  monosyllables  with- 
out [w].  Thus  in  proper  names,  as  in  Woodward,  Wool- 
worth,  Woolwich  (Maine),  Norwich,  Greenwich,  etc., 
[w]  is  pronounced,  except  that  one  may  occasionally  hear 
['grimitS],  ['gnnitj],  as  a  literary  or  acquired  pronuncia- 
tion. In  the  town  in  Connecticut  of  that  name,  the  local 
pronunciation  is  ['griinVit$]. 

370.  A  w  frequently  appears  in  spelling,  at  the  ends  of 
words,  which  has  no  consonantal  value  but  is  merely  an 
orthographic  survival  from  an  earlier  [w]  which  became 
vocalic  and  which  would  thus  be  more  accurately  repre- 
sented by  u.  Conventional  spelling,  however,  rarely  per- 
mits u  to  stand  at  the  end  of  a  word,  exceptions  being 
thou  [oau],  and  a  few  foreign  words  like  gnu  [nu:],  zebu 
['zi:xbu*].  A  vocalized  w  stands  in  the  spelling  of  draw 
[dro:],  know  [nou],  sow  [sou],  [sau],  few  [fjui],  grew  [grui], 
now  [nau],  etc.  The  spelling  with  w  persists  in  derivative 
forms,  but  is  silent  there  also,  as  in  drawing  ['dronrj], 
sower  ['soiai],  fewer  ['fjuiaj]. 

371.  A  w  with  no  consonantal  value  appears  occasion- 
ally in  spelling  before  consonants,  as  in  bawl  [boil],  yawl 
[joil],  hawk  [hoik],  bowl  [boil],  howl  [haul],  brown  [braun], 
drowse  [drauz],  newt  [njuit],  mewl  [mjuil],  or  before  a 
weak  syllable  with  [j],  [1],  [n],  as  in  power  ['pauaj],  towel 
['tauol],  Owen  ['oian],  Cowan  ['kauan],  etc. 


142  STANDARD   ENGLISH   IN  AMERICA 

[*] 

372.  This  sound  is  the  voiceless  equivalent  of  [w],  and 
in  America  it  is  generally  pronounced  wherever  written 
wh,  as  in  what  [Mat],  which  [Mit$],  wheat  [Mi it],  whit 
[Aut],  white  [Mait],  whisper  ['Mispej],  etc.  Some  speakers, 
however,  pronounce  all  these  voiceless  sounds  voiced,  as 
in  whit  [wit]  not  distinguished  from  wit,  white  [wait]  not 
distinguished  from  wight.  Though  not  vulgarisms,  such 
pronunciations  are  usually  discountenanced  by  careful 
speakers  and  in  formal  instruction.  In  standard  British 
speech  of  the  Southern  type  w  and  wh  are  generally  both 
pronounced  as  [w]. 

373.  In  who  and  derived  forms  of  who,  whole,  the 
initial  consonant  is  neither  [w]  nor  [m],  but  [h],  as  in 
[hui],  [hoil].  So  also  whoop,  whooping-cough,  which  may 
be  spelled  hoop,  hooping-cough,  are  pronounced  [huip], 
['huiprrj-]  or  fhupirfkoif]. 


EXERCISES 

(1)  Make  a  collection  of  sounds  not  used  in  articulate 
speech  (e.g.,  the  sigh,  cough,  cluck,  click,  sniff,  'humph,' 
'huh/  'eh/  'hm,'  the  sound  for  calling  a  cat,  for  starting 
horses,  etc.),  and  analyze  them  phonetically.  Record 
them  in  phonetic  script,  inventing  symbols  when  neces- 
sary.   See  §§  3,  4. 

(2)  Take  a  page  of  any  ordinary  English  prose  and 
make  a  list  in  phonetic  script  of  all  the  words  containing 
(a)  voiced  stops,  (6)  voiceless  stops,  (c)  voiced  continu- 
ants, (d)  voiceless  continuants. 

(3)  In  these  words,  note  what  sounds  have  been  af- 
fected, and  in  what  way,  by  their  proximity  to  other 
sounds.    See  §  6. 

(4)  Make  a  list  from  the  same  passage  of  all  words 
containing  fricative  continuants,  lateral  continuants  and 
nasal  continuants. 

(5)  Make  lists  in  phonetic  script  of  all  the  words  on 
this  same  page  which  contain  the  same  vowel  sound. 

(6)  Go  through  this  page  and  note  the  instances  in 
which  the  ordinary  spelling  is  the  same  or  approximately 
the  same  as  the  phonetic  transcriptions. 

(7)  In  the  same  passage,  observe  where  the  breaks  or 
pauses  come  in  natural  easy  reading.  Transcribe  the 
passage  into  these  'breath  groups'  instead  of  the  usual 
division  into  words.    See  §  100. 

A  minute  study  of  a  single  passage,  such  as  is  suggested 
in  Exercises  2-7,  is  better  preliminary  discipline  than  the 
study  of  scattering  texts. 

143 


144  EXERCISES 

(8)  Practice  the  vowel  sounds  in  sequence,  starting 
with  the  lowest  unround  vowel  and  proceeding  to  the 
highest,  then  the  lowest  rounded  vowel,  proceeding  to  the 
highest;  reverse  the  process,  starting  with  the  high  vowels. 

(9)  Practice  such  pairs  of  sounds  as  [e]  and  [e],  [i]  and 
[i],  [u]  and  [u],  [o]  and  [o],  [a]  and  [a:],  [o]  and  [oi],  until 
the  distinction  between  tense  and  slack  sounds  is  quite 
clear. 

(10)  Pronounce  the  sentences  It  was  covered  with 
furs,  It  was  covered  with  firs,  It  was  covered  with  furze, 
It  was  covered  with  fuzz,  to  a  hearer,  and  see  if  he  can 
tell  when  you  mean  furs,  firs,  furze,  fuzz.  If  you  do  not 
pronounce  these  words  alike,  analyze  the  organic  differ- 
ences. 

As  a  similar  exercise  pronounce  the  sentence  The  con- 
tainer was  well  caulked  and  The  container  was  well 
corked,  and  see  if  a  hearer  can  tell  which  word  you  have 
in  mind.  If  so,  extend  the  experiment  to  other  persons  to 
see  if  the  words  are  always  audibly  distinct. 

(11)  Make  a  collection  of  difficult  phrases,  like  Peter 
Piper  pickt  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers,  She  sells  sea- 
shells,  etc.,  and  analyze  their  phonetic  character.  Make 
a  collection  of  phrases  which  are  memorable  not  for  their 
difficulty  but  for  their  phonetic  '  haunting '  quality,  agree- 
able or  disagreeable,  e.g.,  a  pink  trip  slip  for  a  five  cent 
fare;  the  exhaustless  grace  of  Niagara's  emerald  curve; 
the  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine,  etc.  Each  person's 
list  will  naturally  be  different  from  any  other.  Make  a 
list  of  alliterative  phrases,  like  bag  and  baggage,  stock 
and  stone,  head  and  heels,  time  and  tide.  Make  a  list 
of  striking  alliterative  phrases,  such  as  are  often  met 
with  in  newspaper  headlines.  An  interesting  study  of 
consonant  sounds  can  be  made  on  the  basis  of  Lyly's 


EXERCISES  145 

Euphues,  or  still  better,  George  Pettie's  Petite  Pallace  of 
Pleasure  (1576),  in  which  the  resources  of  the  language 
in  sounds  are  utilized  with  the  utmost  ingenuity  for  the 
purpose  of  stylistic  ornamentation. 

(12)  Take  a  word  containing  an  initial  voiceless  stop, 
e.g.,  pay,  and  practice  this  stop  with  and  without  audible 
aspiration  until  the  difference  becomes  clear.  See  §  13. 
Then  pronounce  words  containing  a  voiceless  stop  be- 
tween voiced  sounds,  as  in  witty,  putty,  potato,  dainty, 
bottle,  pippin,  winter,  better,  water,  stopper,  etc.,  with 
weak  and  with  audible  aspiration,  and  note  which  is  the 
better  pronunciation.    See  §  14. 

(13)  Analyze  fully  the  phonetic  elements  of  a  number 
of  words  like  stripped,  booked,  robbed,  drugged.    See  §  15. 

(14)  Repeat  pairs  of  words  like  sit  and  sin,  pit  and  pin, 
bid  and  bin,  did  and  din,  and  then  segregate  the  final 
consonants  in  order  to  study  the  difference  between  stop 
consonants  and  nasal  continuants. 

(15)  Repeat  pairs  of  words  like  sin  and  sing,  win  and 
wing,  to  make  clear  the  difference  between  [n]  and  [rj]. 

(16)  Repeat  groups  of  words  like  sin,  sing,  sink;  win, 
wing,  wink;  thin,  thing,  think,  and  then  analyze  their 
phonetic  elements. 

(17)  Note  the  sound  of  [n]  in  fount,  found;  shunt, 
shunned;  sun,  sunset,  Sunday,  sunbeam.  Is  it  equally 
long  in  all  these  words?  Study  in  general  the  length  of 
the  continuant  consonants  in  different  combinations. 

(18)  Note  the  length  of  the  vowel  in  led,  let;  bed,  bet; 
said,  set;  sad,  sat;  hod,  hot,  etc.  Though  these  are  all 
short  vowels,  are  they  all  equally  short?    Cf.  §  80. 

(19)  Examine  all  the  occurrences  of  [z]  on  a  page  of 
ordinary  prose,  and  note  in  what  instances  the  sound 
ends  in  a  voiceless  vanish.    See  §  36. 


146  EXEKCISES 

(20)  Study  the  difference  in  the  sound  of  [q]  in  sing 
and  song,  and  collect  other  words  illustrating  the  same 
difference. 

(21)  Study  the  sound  of  [k]  in  keel  and  call,  of  [g]  in 
geese  and  gall,  of  [h]  in  heel  and  haul,  and  add  other 
illustrations  of  the  same  variation  in  the  quality  of  the 
consonant. 

(22)  Imitate  the  speech  of  one  who  has  a  cold  in  the 
head,  and  indicate  its  phonetic  character  in  transcription. 

(23)  Take  a  passage  of  ordinary  colloquial  prose  and 
pronounce  the  vowels  as  nasally  as  you  can,  that  is,  cari- 
cature it.  Then  pronounce  the  vowels  with  as  little 
nasalization  as  possible.  Does  your  own  speech  fall 
between  these  two  extremes? 

(24)  Observe  in  the  speech  of  those  with  whom  you 
come  in  contact,  any  manner  of  speech  which  might  be 
characterized  as  'drawling/  and  describe  its  phonetic 
character. 

(25)  Some  of  the  vague  descriptive  adjectives  which 
are  occasionally  applied  to  speech  or  to  special  sounds 
are  'broad/  'rough/  'flat/  'liquid/  'thin/  'mushy/ 
'muddy/  'crisp/  'sharp.'  Add  others  to  this  list,  and 
endeavor  to  determine  what  is  meant  by  them  in  terms 
of  the  organic  analysis  of  speech. 

(26)  Make  a  collection  of  those  speech  characteristics 
which  in  your  estimation  are  evidences  (a)  of  special  re- 
finement or  distinction  in  speech,  (b)  of  'common'  or 
unrefined  speech.  Try  to  determine  how  generally  your 
judgments  would  be  acceptable  to  others. 

(27)  Examine  the  pronunciation  of  r  in  the  speech  of 
as  many  different  persons  as  possible,  and  note  how  many 
types  of  r-sound  are  distinguishable  within  the  range  of 
your  observation. 


EXERCISES  147 

(28)  Start  a  list  of  words  which  may  be  stressed  in  two 
or  more  different  ways. 

(29)  Transcribe  in  phonetic  notation  (a)  first  your 
own  speech  in  detached  phrases  as  you  can  hear  yourself 
pronounce  them,  (b)  your  own  speech  in  connected  con- 
versation, (c)  your  own  speech  as  you  hear  it  in  reading 
aloud. 

(30)  Transcribe  in  phonetic  notation  the  speech  of 
some  other  person  or  persons  than  yourself.  For  this 
purpose,  choose  one  or  two  individuals  whose  speech  you 
have  the  best  opportunity  of  studying,  and  preferably 
whose  speech  impresses  you  as  being  ordinarily  somewhat 
different  from  your  own.  Proceed  very  slowly  at  first, 
transcribing  only  phrases  which  you  are  sure  you  have 
heard  correctly. 

(31)  Take  a  passage  of  English  prose  and  transcribe  it 
first  into  very  formal  literary  style,  then  into  ordinary 
reading  style,  and  then  into  very  familiar  colloquial 
style. 

(32)  If  your  own  speech  is  of  the  Eastern  American 
type,  transcribe  a  passage  illustrating  it  into  Western 
American  speech,  etc. 

(33)  Transcribe  the  passages  of  dialect  speech  given  in 
this  volume  into  informal  standard  speech. 

(34)  Make  a  transcription  of  some  dialect  speech  with 
which  you  are  orally  familiar.  Indicate  the  elements  in 
this  pronunciation  which  are  really  dialectal  and  those 
which  are  merely  standard  colloquial. 

(35)  Transcribe  the  passages  of  British  pronunciation 
given  in  this  volume  into  standard  American  pronuncia- 
tion. 

These  exercises  are  not  systematically  arranged,  and 
are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive  either  of  the  topics 


148  EXERCISES 

discussed  in  this  book  or  of  the  points  of  interest  which 
may  engage  the  attention  of  the  student  of  phonetics. 
They  are  merely  suggestive,  and  the  number  of  them  will 
readily  be  increased  in  the  practical  work  of  the  class- 
room. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

Of  the  numerous  works  on  general  phonetics,  perhaps 
the  most  useful  brief  books  in  English  are  Elements  of 
Phonetics  by  Walter  Rippmann  (on  the  basis  of  Vietor's 
Kleine  Phonetik),  published  by  J.  M.  Dent  and  Sons; 
Introduction  to  Phonetics  by  Laura  Soames  (The  Mac- 
millan  Co.);  General  Phonetics  by  G.  Noel-Armfield  (W. 
Heffer  and  Sons,  Cambridge,  Eng.,  1915).  For  special 
studies  of  English  pronunciation,  reference  may  be  made 
to  The  Pronunciation  of  English  by  Daniel  Jones  (Cam- 
bridge University  Press),  and  to  various  other  publica- 
tions by  Jones,  including  A  Phonetic  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language  by  Hermann  Michaelis  and  Daniel 
Jones  (Carl  Meyer,  Hannover  and  Berlin);  The  Pronun- 
ciation of  English  in  Scotland  by  William  Grant  (Cam- 
bridge University  Press);  Northern  English  by  R.  J. 
Lloyd  (Teubner,  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  1908),  particularly 
valuable  for  the  comparison  of  British  and  American 
English;  The  Sounds  of  Spoken  English  by  Walter  Ripp- 
mann (J.  M.  Dent  and  Sons).  Little  has  been  done  in 
the  way  of  special  study  of  American  speech,  but  refer- 
ence should  be  made  to  Professor  Grandgent's  article, 
English  in  America,  in  Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  II,  443-467 
(1894),  where  a  further  bibliography  of  publications  by 
Professor  Grandgent  will  be  found;  also  in  the  same 
journal,  II,  520-528,  a  group  of  phonetic  transcriptions. 
From  Franklin  to  Lowell,  A  Century  of  New  England  Pro- 
nunciation, by  Professor  Grandgent,  in  the  Publications 

149 


150  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE 

of  the  Modern  Language  Association,  XIV,  207-239, 
gives  a  valuable  historical  survey  of  New  England  speech. 
The  various  numbers  of  Dialect  Notes,  the  publication  of 
the  American  Dialect  Society,  should  also  be  consulted. 
On  the  general  question  of  standard,  the  student  may 
consult  the  two  books  by  Professor  Lounsbury,  The 
Standard  of  Usage  in  English  and  The  Standard  of  Pro- 
nunciation in  English  (Harpers,  New  York).  For  the 
general  history  of  English  sounds,  see  Jespersen,  A 
Modern  English  Grammar,  Part  I,  Sounds  and  Spellings 
(Winter,  Heidelberg,  1909).  As  a  number  of  the  books 
mentioned  in  this  note  are  appearing  from  time  to  time 
in  new  editions,  it  is  advisable  in  ordering  always  to  ask 
for  the  latest  edition. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS 


'dei-Mrismz 

aez  ai  waz  stepin  a'$o:i,  ai  waz  'griitid  bai  'mistaj 
bain,  hu  'paesiz  Sa  'sAmaj  on  Si  'ailand,  nd  hu  'has- 
pitabli  seskt  if  ai  waj  'go:irj  hiz  wei.  hiz  wei  waz 
toud  tSa  'sASain  end  av  Si  'ailand,  nd  ai  sed  jes.  hiz 
5  'pakits  wai  ful  av  'pejpaiz  nd  hiz  brau  av  'rirjklz;  so 
Men  wi  ri:t$t  Sa  point  avbj  hii  $ud  tojn  o:f,  ai  seskt 
im  ta  let  mi  a'lait,  ol'So:  hi  waz  'veri  'aenkjas  ta 
'kaeri  mi  Mer'evai  ai  waz  'goiin. 

"aim  'ornli  'stroilirj   a'baut,"  ai   Unsaid,   aez  ai 
10     'klaembaid  'keufali  aut  av  Sa  'waegn. 

"'strorlin  a'baut?"  seskt  hii,  in  a  bi'wildajd  'ma> 
nai;  "du  'piipl  stroil  a'baut,  'nau-a-Meiz?" 

"sam'taimz,"  ai  Unsaid,  'smailin,  aez  ai  puld  mai 
'trauzajz  daun  'ovai  mai  buits,  foj  Se-  haed  draegd 
15  Ap,  aez  ai  stept  aut  av  Sa  'waegn,  "nd  bi'said,  Mat 
kn  n  oild  'buxk:i:paj  du  'betaj  in  Sa  dAl  'siizn  San 
stroil  a'baut  Sis  'pleznt  'ailand,  n  wot$  Sa  $ips  set 
si:?" 

bajn  lukt  aet  mi  wiS  hiz  'wian  aiz.    "aid  giv  faiv 
20    'Sauzand  'dalaiz  a  'jiaj  foj  a  dAl  'siizan,"  sed  hi:, 
"bat  aez  faj  'stroilin,  aiv  faj'gatn  hau." 

aez  hi  spoik,  hiz  aiz  'wondajd  'driimili  a'kros  Sa 
fiildz  nd  wudz,  nd  waj  'faesnd  a'pon  Sa  'distant  seilz. 

151 


152  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

"it  iz  'pleznt,"  hi  sed  'mjuzinli,  send  fel  'mtu  'sai- 

25  lans.  bat  ai  had  no  taim  ta  speii,  so  ai  wi$t  im  xgud- 
'seftai^nuin. 

"ai  hoip  jaj  waif  s  wel,"  sed  bajn  ta  mi,  sez  ai 
taind  a'wei.  'puai  baan!  hi  droiv  on  a'loin  in  hiz 
'wsegn. 

30  bat  ai  me-d  heist  ta  Sa  moist  'saliNten  point  apon 
Sa  'sASaan  $011,  send  Seu  sset,  gla3d  ta  bi  so  'niai  Sa 
si  1.  Sei  waz  Sset  wo  um,  xsimpa'0etik  'sailans  in  Si 
eu,  Sat  givz  ta  'indm-'sAmai  deiz  'oPmo-st  a  'hju- 
man  'tendainas  av  'fiilin.    a  'delikit  heiz,  Sat  siimd 

35  'oinli  Sa  'kaindli  eu  me-d  'vizibl,  hAn  ovaj  Sa  six. 
Sa  'wotai  lsept  'lsengwidli  a'mAn  Sa  raks,  send  Sa 
'voisaz  av  't$ildran  in  a  bo  it  bi'jond,  rsen  'mjuzikah, 
send  'grsed3uali  n'siidid,  an'til  Se-  wai  lost  in  Sa 
'distans. 

40  it  waz  sAm  taim  bi'fou  ai  waz  a'weu  av  Si  'aut- 
*lam  av  a  laud3  Sip,  droin  'veigli  a'pon  Sa  mist,  Mit$ 
ai  sa'poizd,  set  foist,  ta  bi  'oinli  a  kaind  av  mi'rai3. 
bat  Sa  mo  1  j  'stedvfsestli  ai  geizd,  Sa  moir  dis'tirjkt  it 
bi'keim,  send  ai  kud  no  'loqgai  daut  Sset  ai  soi  a 

45  'steitli  $ip  'lann  set  'senkai,  nat  mou  San  hsef  a  mail 
fram  Sa  lsend. 

"its  n  ik'stroadi^neri  pleis  ta  'senkai,"  ai  sed  ta 
*mai'self,  "oj  ksen  $i  bi  a'$ou?" 
Sei  wai  no  sainz  av  dis'tres;  Sa  seilz  wai  'keufali 

50  kluid  Ap,  send  Sej  wai  no  'seilajz  in  Sa  taps,  noj 
a'pon  Sa  $raudz.  a  flseg,  av  Mit$  ai  kud  nat  sirSa 
di'vais  oj  'nei$an,  hAn  'hevili  set  Sa  stajn,  send  lukt 
sez  if  it  hsed  'foiln  a'sliip.  mai  'kjun'asiti  bi'gsen  ta 
bi  'singjulajli  ik'saitid.    Sa  foum  av  Sa  'vesl  siimd 

55  nat  ta  bi  'paimanant;  bat  wiS'm  a  'kwoitai  av  an 
'auai,  ai  waz  '$uai  Sset  ai  hsed  si  in  hsef  a  'dAzn  'dif- 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  153 

rant  $ips.  aez  ai  geizd,  ai  so:  no  mou  seilz  noi  maests, 
bat  a  Ion  reind3  av  'oiajz,  'flavin  laik  a  'goildn  fnnd3, 
oj  streit  nd  stif,  laik  (5a  legz  av  a  'si  i-xmonstaj. 

6o  "its  SAm  'bloitid  kraeb,  ai  'labstaj,  'maegni^faid  bai 
tSo  mist,"  ai  sed  ta  mai'self,  kam'ple-santli. 

bAt,  aet  Sa  seim  'moimant,  Sej  waz  a  'kansenxtre-tid 
'flae$in  nd  'ble:zin  in  wAn  spat  a'mAn  Sa  'ngin,  aend 
it  waz  aez  if  ai  so:  a  bi'aetifaid  raem,  oj,  mou  'truili,  a 

65     '$i:p-rskin,  'splendid  aez  (5a  he:j  av  xbera'naisi. 

"izSsetSa 'goildn  fliis?"ai  fc>it.  "bat '$uaih,'d3e:- 
san  nd  Si  'augaxnoits  haev  go:n  hosm  Ion  sins,  du 
'piipl  go:  on  'goild-xfliisin  ekspi'di§anz  nau?"  ai  aeskt 
mai'self,  in  pai'pleksiti.     "kaen  Sis  bi  a  kaeli'foanja 

70    'stiimaj?" 

hau  kud  ai  haev  0oit  it  a  'stiimaj?  did  ai  nat  si: 
Soiz  seilz,  "fan  and  'siai"?  did  ai  nat  fill  (5a  'melan- 
xkah  av  Saet  'salften  ba:ik?  it  haed  a  'mistik  'osra; 
a  'borial  'briljansi  '$imajd  in  its  we:k,  foi  it  waz 

75  'driftin  'siiwaid.  a  streindz  'fiaj  'kajdld  a'lon  mai 
veinz.  Saet  'sAmai  sAn  Join  ku:l.  Sa  'wiari  'baetaid 
$ip  waz  gae$t,  aez  if  no  id  bai  ais.  Sei  waz  'teraj  in 
(5a  eu,  aez  a  "'skim  haend  so  braun"  weivd  tu  mi 
fram  Sa  dek.    ai  lei  aez  WAn  bi'wit$t.    Sa  haend  av  Si 

80  'eint$ant  'maerinaj  siimd  ta  bi  'riit$in  foi  mi,  laik  Sa 
haend  av  de0. 

de0?  Mai,  aez  ai  waz  'mil  'preun  pru:z  faj'givnas 
foi  mai  'saliHen  'raembl  nd  'kansivkwent  di'maiz,  a 
glaens  laik  (5a  'fulnas  av  'sAmaj  'splendai  gA$t  ovaj 

85  mi;  Si  'oidaj  av  'flauaiz  and  av  'iistajn  gAmz  me-d 
oil  Si  'aetmas^fiaj.  ai  briiSd  Si  'orient,  and  lei 
drAnk  wiS  bairn,  Mail  Saet  streind3  $ip,  a  'goildn 
'gaeli  nau,  wiS  'glitann  'dreipeViz  fes'tmnd  wiS 
'flauaiz,  peist  tu  Sa  'me3aid  biit  av  'oiaiz  a'lon  Sa 


154  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

90  kaim,  and  Nkli9'peitr9  smaild  a'luinrjli  fram  tSa  gre*t 
'paed39nts  haut. 

waz  Sis  9  baud3  foi  'sAmaa  'wotajz,  Sis  pi'kjuljaj 
Sip  ai  soi?  it  haed  9  'ruind  'digniti,  8  'kAmbros 
'gra3nd39j,  ol'Soi  its  maests  W9i  'Saetajd,  nd  its  seilz 
95  rent,  it  hAn  rprit9i'naet$erih  stil  9'pon  So  sir,  aez  if 
toa'mentid  nd  ig'zoistid  bai  Ion  'draivin  nd  'driftin. 
ai  soi  no  'seiloiz,  b9t  9  gre-t  'spaeniS  'ensain  'floitid 
'ov9j,  aend  wervd,  9  fju'niri9l  pluim.  ai  njui  it  Sen. 
Si  ai'maida  W9Z  log  sins  'skaet9jd;  b9t  'floitirj  fan 
100  on  'd£sovle*t  're:ni  si:z, 

lost  for  'sent$uxriz,  ond  9'gen  n'stoid  tu  salt,  'hiai  lei 
WAn  9v  S9  'feitid  $ips  9v  spein.  S9  hjud3  'gaelijon 
siimd  t9  fil  oil  Si  en,  bilt  Ap  o'genst  S9  skai,  laik  S9 
'gildid  $ips  9V  kloid  lo'rem  o'genst  S9  'sAnxset. 

105  b9t  it  fled,  foj  nctu  9  blsek  flaeg  'flAtaid  set  S9 
'maest^hed —  9  Ion  lou  'vesl  'dautid  'swiftli  Men  S9 
vaest  Jip  lei;  Sea  ke-m  9  $nl  'paipirj  'misI,  S9  klae$  9V 
rkAtlis9z,  fiajs  'nrjin  ouSz,  $aip  'pist9l  kraeks,  S9 
'0Andaj  9V  kg'maend,  9nd  'ovai  oil  S9  'gAsti  jel  9V  a 

no  di'mo-niaek  'koros, 

mai  neim  waz  rabait  kid,  Men  ai  seild. 

—  Sej  wgj  no  klaudz  'longai,  bot  'Andaj  9  si'riin  skai 
ai  soi  9  bank  'mAvin  wiS  'fest9l  pomp,  0roqd  wiS 
greiv  'senoHoaz  in  'flonn  roibz,  ond  waii  wiS  'djukol 

115  'banrt  in  S9  midst,  'hoildiq  9  rin.    S9  smuiS  bauk 

swaem  o'pon  o  sii  laik  Saet  9v  'sASain  'laetiHjudz.    ai 

soi  So  ;but$enrtoro  9nd  S9  'nAptSalz  9V  'venis  9nd  Si 

Vdri'aetik. 

hui  W9J  Soiz  'kAmirj  'ovaj  S9  said?    hui  'kraudid 

120  S9  bo  its,  ond  spraerj  'mtu  S9  'wotai,  men  in  oild 
'spaeniS  'aumai,  wiS  pluimz  nd  soudz,  9nd  'beirir)  9 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  155 

glitonrj  kros?  hu:  waz  his  'stsendin  o'pon  So  dek 
witS  'foildid  aumz  send  'geizin  toudz  So  Sou,  sez  'Iavojz 
on  <5ej  'mistrisoz  send  'mautuz  o'pon  'hevn?  'ovoi 
1 25  Mat  'distsent  33nd  tu'mAlt$uos  siiz  head  Sis  smoil 
krseft  I'ske-pt  fram  'aSoj  'sent$uriz  send  'distsent 
$ouz?  Mat  saundz  ov  'form  himz,  foj'gatn  nau,  woi 
Si:z,  send  Mat  so'lemniti  ov  'di-baj'keiSon?  waz  Sis 
greiv  foum  ko'lAmbos? 

Day-dreams 

As  I  was  stepping  ashore,  I  was  greeted  by  Mr. 
Bourne,  who  passes  the  summer  on  the  island,  and 
who  hospitably  asked  if  I  were  going  his  way.  His 
way  was  toward  the  southern  end  of  the  island,  and 
I  said  yes.  His  pockets  were  full  of  papers  and  his 
brow  of  wrinkles;  so  when  we  reached  the  point  where 
he  should  turn  off,  I  asked  him  to  let  me  alight,  al- 
though he  was  very  anxious  to  carry  me  wherever  I 
was  going. 

"I  am  only  strolling  about,"  I  answered,  as  I 
clambered  carefully  out  of  the  wagon. 

" Strolling  about?"  asked  he,  in  a  bewildered  man- 
ner; "do  people  stroll  about,  now-a-days?" 

"Sometimes,"  I  answered,  smiling,  as  I  pulled  my 
trousers  down  over  my  boots,  for  they  had  dragged 
up,  as  I  stepped  out  of  the  wagon,  "and  beside,  what 
can  an  old  bookkeeper  do  better  in  the  dull  season 
than  stroll  about  this  pleasant  island,  and  watch  the 
ships  at  sea?" 

Bourne  looked  at  me  with  his  weary  eyes. 

"Fd  give  five  thousand  dollars  a  year  for  a  dull 
season,"  said  he,  "but  as  for  strolling,  I've  forgotten 
how." 


156  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

As  he  spoke,  his  eyes  wandered  dreamily  across 
the  fields  and  woods,  and  were  fastened  upon  the 
distant  sails. 

"It  is  pleasant,"  he  said  musingly,  and  fell  into 
silence.  But  I  had  no  time  to  spare,  so  I  wished  him 
good-afternoon. 

"I  hope  your  wife  is  well,"  said  Bourne  to  me,  as  I 
turned  away.  Poor  Bourne!  He  drove  on  alone  in 
his  wagon. 

But  I  made  haste  to  the  most  solitary  point  upon 
the  southern  shore,  and  there  sat,  glad  to  be  so  near 
the  sea.  There  was  that  warm,  sympathetic  silence 
in  the  air,  that  gives  to  Indian-summer  days  almost 
a  human  tenderness  of  feeling.  A  delicate  haze,  that 
seemed  only  the  kindly  air  made  visible,  hung  over 
the  sea.  The  water  lapped  languidly  among  the 
rocks,  and  the  voices  of  children  in  a  boat  beyond, 
rang  musically,  and  gradually  receded,  until  they 
were  lost  in  the  distance. 

It  was  some  time  before  I  was  aware  of  the  outline 
of  a  large  ship,  drawn  vaguely  upon  the  mist,  which 
I  supposed,  at  first,  to  be  only  a  kind  of  mirage.  But 
the  more  steadfastly  I  gazed,  the  more  distinct  it 
became,  and  I  could  no  longer  doubt  that  I  saw  a 
stately  ship  lying  at  anchor,  not  more  than  half  a 
mile  from  the  land. 

"It  is  an  extraordinary  place  to  anchor,"  I  said  to 
myself,  "or  can  she  be  ashore?" 

There  were  no  signs  of  distress;  the  sails  were  care- 
fully clewed  up,  and  there  were  no  sailors  in  the 
tops,  nor  upon  the  shrouds.  A  flag,  of  which  I  could 
not  see  the  device  or  the  nation,  hung  heavily  at  the 
stern,  and  looked  as  if  it  had  fallen  asleep.    My  curi- 


TBANSCRIPTIQNS  157 

osity  began  to  be  singularly  excited.  The  form  of  the 
vessel  seemed  not  to  be  permanent;  but  within  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  I  was  sure  that  I  had  seen  half  a 
dozen  different  ships.  As  I  gazed,  I  saw  no  more 
sails  nor  masts,  but  a  long  range  of  oars,  flashing  like 
a  golden  fringe,  or  straight  and  stiff,  like  the  legs  of 
a  sea-monster. 

"It  is  some  bloated  crab,  or  lobster,  magnified  by 
the  mist,"  I  said  to  myself,  complacently. 

But,  at  the  same  moment,  there  was  a  concen- 
trated flashing  and  blazing  in  one  spot  among  the 
rigging,  and  it  was  as  if  I  saw  a  beatified  ram,  or, 
more  truly,  a  sheep-skin,  splendid  as  the  hair  of 
Berenice. 

"Is  that  the  golden  fleece? "  I  thought.  "But, 
surely,  Jason  and  the  Argonauts  have  gone  home 
long  since.  Do  people  go  on  gold-fleecing  expeditions 
now?"  I  asked  myself,  in  perplexity.  "Can  this  be 
a  California  steamer?" 

How  could  I  have  thought  it  a  steamer?  Did  I 
not  see  those  sails,  "thin  and  sere"?  Did  I  not  feel 
the  melancholy  of  that  solitary  bark?  It  had  a 
mystic  aura;  a  boreal  brilliancy  shimmered  in  its 
wake,  for  it  was  drifting  seaward.  A  strange  fear 
curdled  along  my  veins.  That  summer  sun  shone 
cool.  The  weary,  battered  ship  was  gashed,  as  if 
gnawed  by  ice.  There  was  terror  in  the  air,  as  a 
"skinny  hand  so  brown"  waved  to  me  from  the  deck. 
I  lay  as  one  bewitched.  The  hand  of  the  ancient 
mariner  seemed  to  be  reaching  for  me,  like  the  hand 
of  death. 

Death?  Why,  as  I  was  inly  praying  Prue's  for- 
giveness for  my  solitary  ramble  and  consequent  de- 


158  TBANSCRIPTIONS 

mise,  a  glance  like  the  fulness  of  summer  splendor 
gushed  over  me;  the  odor  of  flowers  and  of  eastern 
gums  made  all  the  atmosphere.  I  breathed  the 
orient,  and  lay  drunk  with  balm,  while  that  strange 
ship,  a  golden  galley  now,  with  glittering  draperies 
festooned  with  flowers,  paced  to  the  measured  beat  of 
oars  along  the  calm,  and  Cleopatra  smiled  alluringly 
from  the  great  pageant's  heart. 

Was  this  a  barge  for  summer  waters,  this  peculiar 
ship  I  saw?  It  had  a  ruined  dignity,  a  cumbrous 
grandeur,  although  its  masts  were  shattered,  and  its 
sails  rent.  It  hung  preternaturally  still  upon  the 
sea,  as  if  tormented  and  exhausted  by  long  driving 
and  drifting.  I  saw  no  sailors,  but  a  great  Spanish 
ensign  floated  over,  and  waved,  a  funereal  plume.  I 
knew  it  then.  The  armada  was  long  since  scattered; 
but,  floating  far 

on  desolate  rainy  seas, 

lost  for  centuries,  and  again  restored  to  sight,  here 
lay  one  of  the  fated  ships  of  Spain.  The  huge  galleon 
seemed  to  fill  all  the  air,  built  up  against  the  sky,  like 
the  gilded  ships  of  Claude  Lorraine  against  the  sunset. 
But  it  fled,  for  now  a  black  flag  fluttered  at  the 
mast-head  —  a  long  low  vessel  darted  swiftly  where 
the  vast  ship  lay;  there  came  a  shrill  piping  whistle, 
the  clash  of  cutlasses,  fierce  ringing  oaths,  sharp 
pistol  cracks,  the  thunder  of  command,  and  over  all 
the  gusty  yell  of  a  demoniac  chorus, 

My  name  was  Robert  Kidd,  when  I  sailed. 

—  There  were  no  clouds  longer,  but  under  a  serene 
sky  I  saw  a  bark  moving  with  festal  pomp,  thronged 
with  grave  senators  in  flowing  robes,  and  one  with 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  159 

ducal  bonnet  in  the  midst,  holding  a  ring.  The  smooth 
bark  swam  upon  a  sea  like  that  of  southern  latitudes. 
I  saw  the  Bucentoro  and  the  nuptials  of  Venice  and 
the  Adriatic. 

Who  were  those  coming  over  the  side?  Who 
crowded  the  boats,  and  sprang  into  the  water,  men 
in  old  Spanish  armor,  with  plumes  and  swords,  and 
bearing  a  glittering  cross?  Who  was  he  standing 
upon  the  deck  with  folded  arms  and  gazing  towards 
the  shore,  as  lovers  on  their  mistresses  and  martyrs 
upon  heaven?  Over  what  distant  and  tumultuous 
seas  had  this  small  craft  escaped  from  other  centuries 
and  distant  shores?  What  sounds  of  foreign  hymns, 
forgotten  now,  were  these,  and  what  solemnity  of 
debarkation?    Was  this  grave  form  Columbus? 

REMARKS 

This  passage  from  Prue  and  I,  by  George  William  Curtis,  was 
chosen  for  transcription  because  it  calls  for  a  considerable  range  of 
styles,  from  familiar  colloquial  to  a  formal  poetic  and  rhetorical 
style.  It  is  transcribed  into  what  seem  to  the  author  the  least 
questionable  forms  of  standard  speech,  that  is,  the  forms  least 
limited  by  geographical  or  other  considerations.  It  is  not  to  be 
taken  therefore  as  a  record  of  the  author's  individual  pronunciation, 
but  of  what  in  his  judgment  is  as  satisfactory  a  representation  as 
can  be  made  of  an  accepted  general  standard  in  American  speech. 
The  author's  native  speech  is  that  of  Southern  Ohio,  though  for  the 
past  twenty  years  he  has  been  a  resident  of  New  York  City,  and 
it  is  of  course  quite  likely  that  his  observations  have  been,  in  some 
degree,  colored  by  his  early  habits  of  speech. 

[dei-dri:mz].  The  diphthongal  quality  in  [del-]  is  not  strongly 
marked,  but  sufficiently  so  to  justify  recording  it,  and  so  generally 
in  final  position  and  also  before  voiced  consonants,  e.g.,  [deiz],  1. 12, 
[seilz],  1.  23,  etc. 


160  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

1.  2.  [bain].  The  name  might  also  be  pronounced  ['bu:m], 
['bmain]. 

['paesiz].  Some  speakers  might  say  ['paesaz],  and  so  generally 
with  final  unstressed  syllables  in  -es,  -ed. 

['haspitabh].  Or  ['hospitabh],  but  not  with  the  stress  on  the 
second  syllable.  This  variation  between  [a]  and  [a]  occurs  in  a 
number  of  other  words. 

1.  3.   [aeskt].    Or  [a:skt],  [a:skt]. 

1.  5.   ['pakits].    Or  ['pokits].     Is  ['pakats]  permissible? 

1.  6.  [mjei].  The  vowel  in  where,  there,  when  these  are  slightly 
stressed  words,  should  be  transcribed  as  short,  [mbi],  [Sei]. 

1.  7.   [im].     More  formally,  [him]. 

['a3rjk$as].     Better  than  ['aerj$as], 

1.  13.  [sam'taimz].  The  word  might  also  be  pronounced  ['sAm- 
Haimz]. 

1.  15.   [nd  bi'said],  etc.     Informal  conversational  style. 

1.  19.   ['wiari].     Or  ['wi:ri],  though  less  commonly. 

1.  22.   ['wandaid].    Or  ['wandajd]. 

1.  23.    [fi:ldz].     Less  correctly,  [fi:lz]. 

1.  24.  [send  fel],  etc.  This  clause  is  transcribed  in  slow  and  for- 
mal style.  The  sentence  immediately  following  is  again  brisker  and 
more  informal. 

1.  30.  [me*d].  The  vowel  is  half-long  or  short  here,  because  so 
slightly  stressed. 

1.  54.  ['vesl].  Sometimes  pronounced  [Vesal]  or  [Vesel],  but  not 
in  standard  speech. 

1.  62.   [bAt].    Usually  unemphatic,  [bat],  but  stressed  here. 

1.  64.   [waz].     Somewhat  emphatic  here. 

1.  72.   ['siajj.     Perhaps  also  ['siaj]. 

['melan'kah].  Or  ['melanxkoli];  so  also  solitary,  1.  73,  ['scuVten] 
or  ['sali'ten]. 

1.  86.   ['orient].     Or  ['orient].     Less  formally,  ['onant]. 

1.  92.  [waz].  Unstressed,  but  formal  because  of  its  important 
position  in  the  sentence. 

1.  98.   [nju:].     Often  pronounced  [nuj]. 

1.  113.  [pomp].  Or  [pamp],  but  in  this  word  [o]  is  more  general 
than  [a]. 

1.  114.   ['senaHoiz].     Formal  pronunciation. 

1.  124.  ['mautuz].  Less  formally,  ['mautaiz];  so  also  ['distant], 
1.  125,  ['sent$ariz],  1.  126,  [sa'kmniti],  1.  128,  [ka'lAmbas],  1.  129. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  161 

II 

tte  'bnin  av  a  maen  av  'saians 

mai   foist   step,   av   kois,   waz   ta   faind   'sjutabl 

a'pa^tmants-    6iiz  aI  8D'temd>  ,seft8J  8  'kAP*  av  deiz 
swtS,  m  f oi.i0  'sevanju;  8  'veri  'pnti  'sekand-'flou  un- 
'fajni$t,   kan'temin   'sitin-rru:m,   'bed-vru:m,   send  a 
5    'smo:lai  a'pautmant  Mit$  ai  ra'tendid  ta  fit  Ap  a3Z  a 
'lsebara'tori.     ai   'faini$t   mai   'lad3inz   'simpli,   bat 
'rsetSaj  'elagantli,  send  Sen  di'vo:tid  oil  mai  'enoid3iz 
tu  Si  a'dommant  av  tSa  tempi  av  mai  'woj$ip.     ai 
'vizitid  paik,  tSa  'selavbre-tid  ap'ti$an,  send  psest  in 
io    ri'vju:  hiz  'splendid  ka'lek$an  av  'maikroNsko-ps,  — 
fiildz  'kam'paund,  'hinamz,  'spensoiz,  nae'$eiz  vbai- 
'nakjuloi  (Sset  'faundid  on  tSa  'prinsiplz  av  tSa  'sterias- 
Nko:p),  send  set  lerjkfl  fikst  a'pon  Sset  foum  no:n  aez 
'spensaiz  'trAnjan  'maikrovsko-p,  aez  kam'bainin  Sa 
iS    'greitist  'nAmbaj  av  im'pruivmants  witS  n  'oPmo-st 
'pajfikt  'frisdam  frAm  'tremai.    a'lon  wiS  tSis  ai  'pai- 
tSist  'evn  'pasibl  sek'sesan,— 'dro:-vtju:bz,  'mai'kram- 
ataiz,    a    'kamara-'lusida,    'Ii:vai-Nsteid3,    'sekro'mae- 
tik  kan'densaaz,  Mait  klaud  I'luzmi'ne-teiz,  pnzmz, 
20    'psera'balik  kan'densaaz,  'poila'raizin  sepa'raitas,  'fou- 
seps,  a'kwatik  'baksaz,  'fi$in-Ntju:bz,  wiS  a  hoist  av 
'aSoi  'aitiklz,  oil  av  Mit$  wud  av  bin  'jusfal  in  Sa 
hsendz  av  n  iks'pinanst  mai'kraskopist,  bAt,  sez  ai 
'seftaiwaidz  dis'kAvaid,  wai  nat  av  tSa  'slaitist  'preznt 
25    'vselju  ta  mi:,    it  teiks  'jiaaz  av  'prsektis  ta  no:  hau  ta 
ju:z  a  'kampli'ke-tid  'maikrovsko-p.    Si  ap'ti$an  lukt 
sas'pi$asli  set  mi  aez  ai  me:d  Si:z  'hoiPseil  'pait$isaz. 
hi  'evidantli  waz  An'soitn  'MeSai  ta  set  mi  daun  sez 
SAm  'saian'tifik  se'lebnti  oj  a  'maed'msen.    ai  0ink  hi 
3o    in'klaind  ta  Sa  'lsetai  bi'liif.    ai  sa'po*z  aI  waz  msed- 


162  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

'evn  greit  'd3iinJ9s  iz  maed  9rpon  6o  rsAbd3ekt  in 
Mit$  hi  iz  'greitist.     tSi  'Ans9kvsesf9l  'maedxmaen  iz 
dis'greist  aend  koild  9  'lunatik. 
maed  oj  nat,  ai  set  mai'self  ta  waik  wi6  9  ziil  Aiit$ 

35  fju  ^saion'tifik  'stjudants  haev  'ev9j  'iikw9ld.  ai  haed 
'evri^in  t9  tem  'retetiv  ta  (5a  'delikit  'stAdi  a'pon 
Mit$  ai  haed  im'baukt,  —  a  'stAdi  in'valvir)  69  moist 
'ajnast  rpei$ans,  69  moist  'ridsid  aena'litik  'pauaiz,  6a 
'stediast  haend,  69  moist  ^An'tairirj  ai,  6a  moist  n- 

40    'faind  aend  'sAbHail  mae^nipju'leiSan. 

foi  a  lorj  taim  haef  mai  aepa'raitas  lei  in'aektivli  on 
69  $elvz  av  mai  'laebara^ton,  Mit$  waz  nau  moist 
'aempli  'fajnijt  wi6  'evn  'pasibl  kan'traivans  for  fa- 
'snVte-tiq  mai  mVesti'gei$9nz.    6a  faekt  waz  6aet  ai 

45  did  nat  noi  hau  ta  juiz  sAm  av  mai  ^saian'tifik  'im- 
plamants,  —  'nevaj  'haevirj  bin  to  it  xmaikro'skapiks, 
—  aend  6oiz  huz  juis  ai  ^mdai'stud  x0io'retik9li  waa 
av  'htl  a' veil,  an'til  bai  'praektis  ai  kud  a'tein  6a 
'nesa^sen  'delikasi  av  'haendlin.     stil,  sAt$  waz  6a 

50  'fjuri  av  mai  aem'bijan,  sAt$  61  ^An'tairirj  pajsi'virans 
av  mai  iks'penmants,  6aet,  'difikalt  av  'kredit  aez  it 
me-  bii,  in  6a  kojs  av  waii  'jiai  ai  bi'keim  x0io'retikali 
aend  'praektikali  aen  arkampli$t  mai'kraskopist. 

'djurirj  61s  'pinad  av  mai  'leibajz,  in  Mit$  ai  sab- 

55  'mitid  'spesimanz  av  'evn  'sAbstans  6aet  ke-m  'Andai 
mai  xabs9i'vei$an  ta  61  'aekjan  av  mai  'lenziz,  ai  bi- 
'keim a  dis'kAvaraj,  —  in  9  smoil  wei,  it  iz  trui,  foj 
ai  W9z  'veri  jaq,  b9t  stil  9  dis'kAV9r9j.  it  W9z  ai  hu 
dis'troid  'eronbajgz  '0ion  6aet  69  'volvoks  glo'baitor 

60  waz  aen  'aenimol,  aend  pruivd  6aet  hiz  "'momaedz" 
wi6  'stAmgks  nd  aiz  waj  'mull  'feizgz  9V  69  foi'mei- 
$9n  9v  9  ,ved39t9bl  sel,  aend  wai,  Men  6e-  riitjt  6ej 
m9rtjuj  steit,  m'keipgbl  9V  61  aekt  9v  xkand3u'gei$9n, 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  163 

oj  'eni  tru:  'd3en8xre-tiv  aekt,  wiS'aut  Mit$  noi  'oj- 
65  ganizm  'raizirj  tu  'em  steid3  av  laif  'haiaj  (5an  'ved59- 
tabl  kaen  bi  sed  ta  bi  kam'pliit.  it  waz  ai  hu  n'zalvd 
t5a  'sirjgjutei  'prabtom  ev  ro'te:$an  in  t5a  selz  send 
heuz  av  plsents  'intu  'siliven  o'trsekjan,  in  spait  av  Si 
a'sajjanz  9v  'mistai  Venom  send  'ao^iz,  <5aet  mai 
70    ekspta'neijan  waz  <5a  n'zAlt  ov  an  'aptikl  i'lu:38n. 

The  Longing  of  a  Man  of  Science 

My  first  step  of  course  was  to  find  suitable  apart- 
ments. These  I  obtained,  after  a  couple  of  days' 
search,  in  Fourth  Avenue;  a  very  pretty  second-floor 
unfurnished,  containing  sitting-room,  bed-room,  and 
a  smaller  apartment  which  I  intended  to  fit  up  as  a 
laboratory.  I  furnished  my  lodgings  simply,  but 
rather  elegantly,  and  then  devoted  all  my  energies 
to  the  adornment  of  the  temple  of  my  worship.  I 
visited  Pike,  the  celebrated  optician,  and  passed  in 
review  his  splendid  collection  of  microscopes,  — 
Field's  Compound,  Hingham's,  Spencer's,  Nachet's 
Binocular  (that  founded  on  the  principles  of  the 
stereoscope),  and  at  length  fixed  upon  that  form 
known  as  Spencer's  Trunnion  Microscope,  as  com- 
bining the  greatest  number  of  improvements  with  an 
almost  perfect  freedom  from  tremor.  Along  with 
this  I  purchased  every  possible  accessory,  —  draw- 
tubes,  micrometers,  a  cam.era-lucida,  lever-stage, 
achromatic  condensers,  white  cloud  illuminators, 
prisms,  parabolic  condensers,  polarizing  apparatus, 
forceps,  aquatic  boxes,  fishing-tubes,  with  a  host  of 
other  articles,  all  of  which  would  have  been  useful  in 
the  hands  of  an  experienced  microscopist,  but,  as  I 


164  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

afterwards  discovered,  were  not  of  the  slightest  pres- 
ent value  to  me.  It  takes  years  of  practice  to  know 
how  to  use  a  complicated  microscope.  The  optician 
looked  suspiciously  at  me  as  I  made  these  whole-sale 
purchases.  He  evidently  was  uncertain  whether  to 
set  me  down  as  some  scientific  celebrity  or  a  madman. 
I  think  he  inclined  to  the  latter  belief.  I  suppose  I 
was  mad.  Every  great  genius  is  mad  upon  the  sub- 
ject in  which  he  is  greatest.  The  unsuccessful  mad- 
man is  disgraced  and  called  a  lunatic. 

Mad  or  not,  I  set  myself  to  work  with  a  zeal  which 
few  scientific  students  have  ever  equaled.  I  had 
everything  to  learn  relative  to  the  delicate  study 
upon  which  I  had  embarked,  —  a  study  involving 
the  most  earnest  patience,  the  most  rigid  analytic 
powers,  the  steadiest  hand,  the  most  untiring  eye, 
the  most  refined  and  subtile  manipulation. 

For  a  long  time  half  my  apparatus  lay  inactively 
on  the  shelves  of  my  laboratory,  which  was  now  most 
amply  furnished  with  every  possible  contrivance  for 
facilitating  my  investigations.  The  fact  was  that  I 
did  not  know  how  to  use  some  of  my  scientific  imple- 
ments, —  never  having  been  taught  microscopies,  — 
and  those  whose  use  I  understood  theoretically  were 
of  little  avail,  until  by  practice  I  could  attain  the 
necessary  delicacy  of  handling.  Still,  such  was  the 
fury  of  my  ambition,  such  the  untiring  perseverance 
of  my  experiments,  that,  difficult  of  credit  as  it  may 
be,  in  the  course  of  one  year  I  became  theoretically 
and  practically  an  accomplished  microscopist. 

During  this  period  of  my  labors,  in  which  I  sub- 
mitted specimens  of  every  substance  that  came  under 
my  observation  to  the  action  of  my  lenses,  I  became 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  165 

a  discoverer,  —  in  a  small  way,  it  is  true,  for  I  was 
very  young,  but  still  a  discoverer.  It  was  I  who 
destroyed  Ehrenberg's  theory  that  the  Volvox  globator 
was  an  animal,  and  proved  that  his  " monads"  with 
stomachs  and  eyes  were  merely  phases  of  the  forma- 
tion of  a  vegetable  cell,  and  were,  when  they  reached 
their  mature  state,  incapable  of  the  act  of  conjuga- 
tion, or  any  true  generative  act,  without  which  no 
organism  rising  to  any  stage  of  life  higher  than  vege- 
table can  be  said  to  be  complete.  It  was  I  who  re- 
solved the  singular  problem  of  rotation  in  the  cells 
and  hairs  of  plants  into  ciliary  attraction,  in  spite  of 
the  assertions  of  Mr.  Wenham  and  others,  that  my 
explanation  was  the  result  of  an  optical  illusion. 

REMARKS 

These  paragraphs  are  from  The  Diamond  Lens  by  Fitz-James 
O'Brien.  The  transcription  represents  the  author's  conception  of  a 
standard  reading  pronunciation,  more  formal  than  a  colloquial  but 
less  formal  than  an  oratorical  style. 

1.  1.    ['sjutabl].     But  ['sutabl]  is  also  possible. 

1.  5.  [m'tendid].  The  final  syllable,  in  this  and  similar  words,  is 
quite  as  likely  to  be  [-ad]  as  [-id]. 

1.  9.  [psest].  Or  [passt].  The  pronunciation  [pa:st]  is  likely  to 
be  noticeable.  Neither  [pa:st]  nor  [pa:st]  are  natural  to  the  author, 
whose  native  speech  was  formed  in  Southern  Ohio. 

1.  13.   [lento].     Or  [len0]. 

1.  16.    ['tremaj].     Rarely  ['trismaj]. 

1.  18.  Psekro'maetik].  For  emphasis  on  the  etymological  elements 
of  the  word,  one  might  say  ['eikro'msetik]. 

1.  20.  [aepa'raitas].  Or  [aepa're:tas],  scarcely  [aepa'raetas],  though 
this  pronunciation  is  common  popularly  and  is  sometimes  heard 
among  physicists  and  other  scientists. 

1.  21.    [a'kwatik].     Or  [a'kwatik]. 

1.  26.    [ap'ti$an].     Of  course  [ap'ti$an]  is  also  possible,  but  in  this 


166  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

and  other  words  where  a  choice  between  the  two  is  open,  the  form 
with  [a]  is  much  the  more  general,  and  represents  the  author's  habit. 

1.  28.    ['evidantli].     Or  ['eviMentliJ. 

I.  30.    [waz].     An  emphatic  form  of  unemphatic  [waz]. 

1.  31.    ['sAbdjekt].     Or  ['sAbd3ikt]. 

1.  32.    [<5i].     Before  a  vowel,  [-5a]  before  consonants. 

['Ansakvsesfal].     Or  [vAnsak'sesfal]. 

1.  34.  [oj].  In  rapid  reading  more  likely  to  be  [ai]  than  [ojj. 
So  also  [send]  may  frequently  be  merely  [nd]. 

1.  36.  ['delikit].  The  pronunciation  ['delakat]  seems  scarcely 
permissible. 

1.  37.    [rm'baukt].     Or  [em'baukt]. 

1.  39.    [vAn'tarrin].     Or  [an'tainn]. 

1.  41.    [haef].     Or  [ha:f]. 

1.  52.  [bi'keim].  The  vowel  is  distinctly  long  here  before  a 
slight  pause. 

1.  54.  ['djunn].  In  British  English  a  glide  vowel  before  [r]  is 
prominent,  giving  ['djuarirj],  ['piariad],  1.  61  ['miajli],  etc.,  but  in 
American  speech  this  glide  vowel  is  very  slight  when  heard  and 
usually  is  not  heard  at  all. 

1.  62.    [waj].     Stressed  here,  but  usually  unstressed. 

1.  66.  [bi],  [bi].  The  second  be  is  more  emphatic,  hence  the 
vowel  is  higher  and  tenser.  The  second  syllable  of  complete  is  still 
more  emphatic. 

Ill 

tfo  'haimit 

WAn  nait,  a  'bjutifal  'kliai  'frosti  nait,  hi  keim  bsek 

tu  hiz  sel,  'aeftai  9  $oit  rest.    <59  stauz  waj  'wAndaafal. 

'hevn  siimd  9  '0auz9nd  taimz  'laiid^Bi  9z  wel  9z  'broi- 

t9J  San  Qid,  nd  ta  luk  wiS  a  'flauzand  aiz  m'sted  av 

S  WAn. 

"ou,  'wAnd9if9l,"  hi  kraid,  "Sat  <5ei  $ud  bi  men  hu 
dui  kraimz  bai  nait;  send  'aS9jz  skeus  les  maed,  hu 
liv  foj  Sis  'htl  W9jld,  nd  nat  foi  Sset  greit  n  'gloirras 
WAn,  MitS  'nartli,  tu  oil  aiz  nat  'blamdid  bai  'kAstom, 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  167 

10  n'viilz  its  'glourj  'gloiriz.    0aenk  gad  ai  aem  a  'haj- 
mIt.,, 

send  in  Sis  muid  hi  keim  tu  hiz  sel  do  u. 
hi  poizd  set  it;  it  waz  kloizd. 

"Mai,  mi'0oit  ai  left  it  'oipn,"  sed  hi.     "tSa  wind, 
is  Sai  iz  nat  a  bre0  av  wind.    Mat  miinz  Sis?" 

hi  stud  wiS  iz  hsend  a'pon  Sa  'rAgid  dou.    hi  lukt 

0ru  wAn  av  Sa  greit  thinks,  foj  it  waz  mAt$  'smoilai  in 

'pleisiz  Ssen  Si  'aepa.it$a.i  it  pri'tendid  ta  kloiz,  send 

so  i  hiz  'litl  oil  wik  'bajnin  dsAst  mcm  hi  haed  left  it. 

20      "hau  iz  it  wrS  mi,"  hi  said,  "Men  ai  staut  n  'trembl 

set  'nA0in?    'iiSaj  ai  did  $At  it,  oj  Sa  fimd  hse0  $At  it 

'seftaj  mi  ta  dis'taib  mai  'hsepi  soul,    'retro  sa'0ainas!" 

send  hi  'entaid  hiz  keiv  'rsepidli,  nd  bi'gaen  wiS 

'sAuiMat  'najvas  ekspi'di$an  ta  lait  waii  av  hiz  'laud3- 

25  1st  'teipajz.    Mail  hi  waz  'laitin  it,  Sei  waz  a  soft  sai 

in  Sa  keiv. 

hi  'stautid  nd  drapt  Sa  'kaendl  d3Ast  az  it  waz  'lai- 
tin, send  it  went  aut. 

hi  stuipt  foj  it  'hAriadli  nd  'laitid  it,  'lisnin  m- 
30  'tenth.     Men  it  waz  'laitid  hi  '$eidid  it  wiS  iz  haend 
fram  bi'haind,  send  0rui  Sa  feint  lait  oil  raund  Sa  sel. 
in  Sa  'fauSist  'kojnaa  Si  'autlain  av  Sa  woil  siimd 
'broikn. 
hi  tuk  a  step  toudz  Sa  pie  is  wiS  iz  haut  'biitin. 
35      Sa  'ksendl  set  Sa  seim  taim  'getin  'braitaj,  hi  so:  it 
waz  Sa  'figjui  av  a  'wuman. 
a'nASaj  step  wiS  iz  niiz  'nakin  ta'geSaj. 
it  waz  'maugnt  brsent. 

The  Hermit 

One  night,  a  beautiful  clear  frosty  night,  he  came 
back  to  his  cell,  after  a  short  rest.     The  stars  were 


168  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

wonderful.  Heaven  seemed  a  thousand  times  larger 
as  well  as  brighter  than  earth,  and  to  look  with  a 
thousand  eyes  instead  of  one. 

"Oh,  wonderful,"  he  cried,  "that  there  should  be 
men  who  do  crimes  by  night;  and  others  scarce  less 
mad,  who  live  for  this  little  world,  and  not  for  that 
great  and  glorious  one,  which  nightly,  to  all  eyes  not 
blinded  by  custom,  reveals  its  glowing  glories.  Thank 
God  I  am  a  hermit." 

And  in  this  mood  he  came  to  his  cell  door. 

He  paused  at  it;  it  was  closed. 

"Why,  methought  I  left  it  open,"  said  he.  "The 
wind.  There  is  not  a  breath  of  wind.  What  means 
this?" 

He  stood  with  his  hand  upon  the  rugged  door.  He 
looked  through  one  of  the  great  chinks,  for  it  was 
much  smaller  in  places  than  the  aperture  it  pretended 
to  close,  and  saw  his  little  oil  wick  burning  just  where 
he  had  left  it. 

"How  is  it  with  me,"  he  sighed,  "when  I  start  and 
tremble  at  nothing?  Either  I  did  shut  it,  or  the  fiend 
hath  shut  it  after  me  to  disturb  my  happy  soul.  Retro 
Sathanas!" 

And  he  entered  his  cave  rapidly,  and  began  with 
somewhat  nervous  expedition  to  light  one  of  his  largest 
tapers.  While  he  was  lighting  it,  there  was  a  soft  sigh 
in  the  cave. 

He  started  and  dropped  the  candle  just  as  it  was 
lighting,  and  it  went  out. 

He  stooped  for  it  hurriedly  and  lighted  it,  listening 
intently.  When  it  was  lighted  he  shaded  it  with  his 
hand  from  behind,  and  threw  the  faint  light  all  round 
the  cell. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  169 

In  the  farthest  corner  the  outline  of  the  wall  seemed 
broken. 

He  took  a  step  towards  the  place  with  his  heart 
beating. 

The  candle  at  the  same  time  getting  brighter,  he 
saw  it  was  the  figure  of  a  woman. 

Another  step  with  his  knees  knocking  together. 

It  was  Margaret  Brandt. 

REMARKS 

From  Cap.  XCV  of  Charles  Reade's  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth. 

1.  1.  [waii  nait].  Two  distinct  [n]  consonants  are  not  pronounced 
here,  see  above,  §  83. 

1.  10.    [ai  sem].     Less  formally,  [aim]. 

1.  17.  [0ru].  The  word  is  very  slightly  stressed,  hence  the  vowel 
is  short. 

[gre:t].  As  an  intensive,  great  is  not  usually  a  very  emphatic 
word.  Here  it  is  lightly  stressed  and  the  vowel  is  perhaps  only 
half-long. 

1.  18.    ['pleisizj.     Or  ['pleisaz]? 

1.  38.  ['maugntj.  This  word  would  be  trisyllabic  only  in  a 
formal  spelling-pronunciation. 

IV 

tte  'luk-raut 

"(Sen  $i  blouz,"  waz  sArj  aut  from  oo  'msest-^hed. 
"Men  o'wei?"  di'msendid  t5a  'kseptn. 
"0ri:  points  o:f  (So  li:  bau,  S9j." 
"reiz  Ap  J9J  Mill.    'steiMu!" 
S      "'stedi,  sal." 

"'maest-vhed  o'hoi!    djo  si:  tSset  A\eil  nau?" 
"ai,  ai,  s9j!    a  Soul  a  sp9jm  Meilz!    tSeu  Si  blouz! 
SeuSi'briitSaz!" 

"sirj  aut!    sirj  aut  evn  taim!" 


170  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

10      "ai,  ai,  s9j!     <5e:i  $i  blouz!    t5e:i — (Seu  —  t5au  $i 
blouz  —  bouz  —  boiuz!" 
"haufauoif?" 
"tu  mailz  nd  o  hsef." 
"'0Andr  n  'laitnin!    so  'niai!    koil  oil  hsendz!" 

The  Look-out 

"There  she  blows,"  was  sung  out  from  the  mast-head. 

"Where  away?"  demanded  the  captain. 

"Three  points  off  the  lee  bow,  sir." 

" Raise  up  your  wheel.    Steady!" 

"Steady,  sir." 

"Mast-head  ahoy!    Do  you  see  that  whale  now?" 

"Ay,  ay,  sir!  A  shoal  of  Sperm  Whales!  There  she 
blows!    There  she  breaches!" 

"Sing  out!  sing  out  every  time!" 

"Ay,  ay,  sir!  There  she  blows!  there  —  there  — 
thar  she  blows  —  bowes  —  bo — o — o — s! " 

"How  far  off?" 

"Two  miles  and  a  half." 

"Thunder  and  lightning!    So  near!    Call  all  hands! " 

REMARKS 

From  Extracts  at  the  end  of  Melville's  Moby  Dick.  Note  the 
prolonged  quality  of  some  of  the  vowels,  resulting  of  course  from 
the  manner  of  speech  exemplified  by  the  passage.  In  line  6,  [dJ9] 
might  be  transcribed  [d33]. 

V 

tte  fiist 

send  stil  $i  slept  in  'ae39.i-'lidid  ship, 

in  'blaentSid  'linin,  smuio*,  send  'laevon'dajd, 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  171 

Mail  hi:  fram  hud  Sa  'klozit  broit  a  hiip 
av  'ksenvdid  'sepal,  kwins,  send  pLvm,  send  'guaad; 
S      wi#  'dseliz  'suiSai  Ssen  Sa  'kriimi  kaid, 
send  'ljuisent  'sirops,  tinkt  wi0  'sina'mon; 
'msena  send  deits,  in  'augo'si  trsens'faid 
fram  fez;  send  'spaisid  'demtiz,  'evn  wAn, 
fram  'silkan  'ssemai'ksend  tu  'sidaid  'leba'non. 

io      t5iiz  'deli'keits  hi  hiipt  wi0  'glo:m  hsend 
on  'goildin  'di$iz  send  in  'baiskits  brait 
av  'wriiSid  'silvan  'sAmpt$u'As  Se-  stsend 
in  <5a  n'taiaad  'kwant  av  <5a  nait, 
'filin  <5a  't$ili  ru:m  wi0  'pajfjum  lait.  — 

15      "send  nau,  mai  Iav,  mai  'sersef  'feiai,  a'weik! 
Sau  aat  mai  'hevn,  send  ai  Sam  'en'mait: 
'oipn  Sam  aiz,  foj  mi:k  se-nt  'segnis  seik, 
oj  ai  $sel  drauz  bi'said  Si:,  sou  mai  soul  dA0  eik." 

The  Feast 

And  still  she  slept  in  azure-lidded  sleep, 
In  blanched  linen,  smooth,  and  lavender'd, 
While  he  from  forth  the  closet  brought  a  heap 
Of  candied  apple,  quince,  and  plum,  and  gourd; 
With  jellies  soother  than  the  creamy  curd, 
And  lucent  syrops,  tinct  with  cinnamon; 
Manna  and  dates,  in  argosy  transferr'd 
From  Fez;  and  spiced  dainties,  every  one, 
From  silken  Samarcand  to  cedar'd  Lebanon. 

These  delicates  he  heap'd  with  glowing  hand 
On  golden  dishes  and  in  baskets  bright 
Of  wreathed  silver:  sumptuous  they  stand 


172  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

In  the  retired  quiet  of  the  night, 

Filling  the  chilly  room  with  perfume  light.  — 

"And  now,  my  love,  my  seraph  fair,  awake! 

Thou  art  my  heaven,  and  I  thine  eremite: 

Open  thine  eyes,  for  meek  St.  Agnes'  sake, 

Or  I  shall  drowse  beside  thee,  so  my  soul  doth  ache/5 

REMARKS 

These  two  stanzas  from  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  by  Keats,  are 
transcribed  into  a  text  for  very  formal  and  somewhat  artificial  pro- 
nunciation, such  as  one  would  employ  in  a  slow  recitation  of  the 
lines. 

1.  1.    ['se38J-].     Or  ['ei39i-j. 

1.  4.  ['guaxd].  The  word  is  a  poor  rime  to  lavender'd,  curd, 
transferr'd,  unless  one  adopts  an  artificial  pronunciation,  [gsjd],  for 
the  sake  of  the  rime.  Normally  the  word  is  pronounced  ['guajd]  or 
[goad]. 

1.  6.    ['ljursent  'sirops].     In  colloquial  style,  ['lursant  'srrapsj. 

1.  8.  [wAn].  Should  one  pronounce  [won]  for  the  rime,  or  ['sma- 
'mAn],  ['lebo'nAn],  or  be  satisfied  merely  with  the  approximate  eye- 
rime  in  the  spellings  cinnamon,  one,  Lebanon? 

1.  11.  ['baiskits].  Or  ['ba:skits],  ['bseskits},  though  one  would 
not  likely  hear  ['baeskits]  from  a  professional  elocutionist. 

1.  12.    ['sAmptSu'As].     In  colloquial  style,  ['sAmpt$uas]. 

VI 

imoj'taeliti 

sou  wi  d3Ad3  ov  So  hoip  ov  imoj'taeliti.  it  bi'lonz 
witS  and  fits  'mtu  o  'strAkt$ai;  it  iz  tSset  wiS'aut  A\it$ 
ju  kon  'nevoi  meik  So  'bjuti  oi  'juniti  larst,  wiSaut 
A\it$  'olso  So  'strAkt$8J  tendz  to  foil  o'pait.  Si  ait$  iz 
S  nat  jet  trui  til  'evn  stoin  fits  'mtu  pie  is.  put  So  hoip 
ov  imoj'taeliti  'mtu  So  kraun  ov  So  'vseljuz  ov  laif,  ond 
Se-  ko'hioi,  and  oil  ov  Sem  teik  on  njui  sig'nif ikons 


TEANSCEIPTIONS  173 

i:t$  stoin  bilt  'into  8a  'strAkt$aj  iz  wai0  'moaj  8an  it 
iz  wa:8  bai  it 'self  in  8a  fiild.    iit$  stoin  iz  wa:8  stil 

10  'moai  Men  8a  'strAkt$ai  iz  'fmi$t.  ri'fjuz  'juai  'ki:- 
vsto:n  8a  pleis  foj  Mit$  it  siimz  ta  bi  'fitid  eg'zaektli, 
aend  ju  haev  put  'evn  'pre$as  'vselju  set  risk,  ju  ai  nat 
so  '$uai  av  a  gud  gad  'eni  'longai.  'hjuman  laif  iz  no 
'longai  so  sig'nifikant  az  it  waz  bi'foai.    ju  hav  lost 

is  wai0  aut  av  Lvv  and  'frendjip,  and  'leveld  8em  toud 
6a  dAst.  ju  hav  n'dust  'pe-triatizm  and  fil'aenflrapi  tu 
'fafnait  'vaeljuz,  i:t$  wi8  its  prais.  ju  hav  te-kn 
'buijant  d30i  and  en'0uziaezm  aut  av  oil  ma'tui  menz 
laif,  and  '0retnd  8em  wi8  an  'ajliai  odd  eid3.    ju  hav 

20  '$e:kn  8a  'be:saz  av  mo'raeliti  and  put  'rait$asnas  'intu 
tajmz  av  'kAmfat  and  'palisi.  ju  hav  'bidn  8i  'artist, 
8a  'poet,  and  8a  'prafet  laif  at  8ej  'vi3anz  and  daut 
8ei  va'liditi.  ju  hav  dis'tinktli  '$e:kn  maenz  fe:0  in 
'lad3ik  and  'riizan,  and  bro:t  oil  inta'lekt$ual  'prasasaz 

25  'intu  dis'kredit.    foi  oil  8at  'lad3ik  iz  'foia  iz  ta  baind 

0inz  'intu  ko'hirans  and  'juniti.    oil  'vaeljuz,  in  faekt, 

bi'lon  in  8i  ai'dial  'relm;  8e*  go:  ta'ge8ai  and  meik  a 

'juniti,  oi  els  8e-  foil  ta'ge8aj. 

foil  ta'ge8ai?     nou!     no  maen  kaen  meik  8a  greit 

30  'vaeljuz  foil,  a  te:k  8em  a'pait,  0  ha.it  wAn  av  8em.  a 
maen  kaen  hait  and  ma:  hiz  oun  laif  bai  hiz  dis'trAst, 
bat  hi  kan  ma:  nou  n'aeliti.  no  maenz  daut  kan  meik 
'd3Astis,  'bjuti,  tru:0,  Iav,  les  8an  'rial.  8iiz  0inz  a 
m'greind  in  a  'neit$a.     wi  ni:d  'omli  ta  trAst  8em. 

35  8e-  'kanstftut  aen  'infinit  'ojdaj.  8e-  'vaeliMe-t  8em- 
'selvz  8a  'moai  wi  0rou  aua  we:t  a'pon  8em.  8a  ho:p 
av  imoi'taeliti  iz  'simpli  8a  'kiiNstosn,  Mit$  'olwez 
staendz  fa:st,  bi'jond  'em  maenz  daut,  aet  8a  kraun  av 
8a  'strAkt$ai.    it  fits  its  kam'paenjan  'vaeljuz,  and  8e- 

40  klaisp  it  wi8  8ea  a:mz  'intu  a  si'rim  m'tegnti.    8e* 


174  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

bid  as  trAst  auo  laivz  a'pon  c5i  'aitJVei,  Mit$  'evn 
'vaelju  in  oa  'jumVais  haez  dsoind  ta  kon'strAkt.  wii 
did  nat  bild  So  'bjutifal  'strAkt$9.i:  wi  'oinli  faund  it. 

Mat  iz  'eksalant, 
45  sez  gad  livz,  iz  'pAimanant. 

Immortality 

So  we  judge  of  the  hope  of  immortality.  It  belongs 
with  and  fits  into  a  structure;  it  is  that  without  which 
you  can  never  make  the  beauty  or  unity  last,  without 
which  also  the  structure  tends  to  fall  apart.  The  arch 
is  not  yet  true  till  every  stone  fits  into  place.  Put  the 
hope  of  immortality  into  the  crown  of  the  values  of 
life,  and  they  cohere,  and  all  of  them  take  on  new 
significance.  Each  stone  built  into  the  structure  is 
worth  more  than  it  is  worth  by  itself  in  the  field.  Each 
stone  is  worth  still  more  when  the  structure  is  finished. 
Refuse  your  keystone  the  place  for  which  it  seems  to 
be  fitted  exactly,  and  you  have  put  every  precious 
value  at  risk.  You  are  not  so  sure  of  a  good  God  any 
longer.  Human  life  is  no  longer  so  significant  as  it  was 
before.  You  have  lost  worth  out  of  love  and  friend- 
ship, and  leveled  them  toward  the  dust.  You  have 
reduced  patriotism  and  philanthropy  to  finite  values, 
each  with  its  price.  You  have  taken  buoyant  joy  and 
enthusiasm  out  of  all  mature  men's  life,  and  threatened 
them  with  an  earlier  old  age.  You  have  shaken  the 
bases  of  morality  and  put  righteousness  into  terms  of 
comfort  and  policy.  You  have  bidden  the  artist,  the 
poet,  and  the  prophet  laugh  at  their  visions  and  doubt 
their  validity.  You  have  distinctly  shaken  man's 
faith  in  logic  and  reason,  and  brought  all  intellectual 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  175 

processes  into  discredit.  For  all  that  logic  is  for  is  to 
bind  things  into  coherence  and  unity.  All  values,  in 
fact,  belong  in  the  ideal  realm;  they  go  together  and 
make  a  unity,  or  else  they  fall  together. 

Fall  together?  No!  No  man  can  make  the  great 
values  fall,  or  take  them  apart,  or  hurt  one  of  them.  A 
man  can  hurt  and  mar  his  own  life  by  his  distrust,  but 
he  can  mar  no  reality.  No  man's  doubt  can  make 
justice,  beauty,  truth,  love,  less  than  real.  These 
things  are  ingrained  in  our  nature.  We  need  only  to 
trust  them.  They  constitute  an  infinite  order.  They 
validate  themselves  the  more  we  throw  our  weight 
upon  them.  The  hope  of  immortality  is  simply  the 
keystone,  which  always  stands  fast,  beyond  any  man's 
doubt,  at  the  crown  of  the  structure.  It  fits  its  com- 
panion values,  and  they  clasp  it  with  their  arms  into 
a  serene  integrity.  They  bid  us  trust  our  lives  upon 
the  archway,  which  every  value  in  the  universe  has 
joined  to  construct.  We  did  not  build  the  beautiful 
structure:  we  only  found  it. 

What  is  excellent, 
As  God  lives,  is  permanent. 

REMARKS 

This  passage,  from  Truth  and  Immortality,  an  essay  by  Charles 
Fletcher  Dole,  represents  the  pronunciation  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Lawrence 
who  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine,  and  spent  his  early  life  there. 
After  the  usual  college  training  at  Bowdoin,  and  graduate  discipline, 
especially  in  English  and  German  at  Harvard,  he  spent  several 
years  in  Kansas,  but  for  the  past  dozen  or  fifteen  years  he  has  lived 
in  New  York,  regularly  returning,  however,  for  three  or  four 
months  of  each  year  to  his  native  New  England.  His  pronunciation 
represents  not  an  extreme  local  New  England  speech,  but  what  may 
be  taken  as  a  fair  example  of  cultivated  standard  New  England 


176  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

speech.  Perhaps  its  most  interesting  feature  is  its  mixed  character. 
This  is  evident,  for  example,  in  the  treatment  of  [i].  Final  un- 
stressed or  lightly  stressed  [j]  is  regularly  present,  but  disappears 
in  a  heavily  stressed  syllable  like  [fo:o],  1.  25,  or  [ma:],  1.  31.  Before 
consonants  no  [j]  is  present  in  [o'pait],  1.  30,  [a:mz],  1.  40,  [a:t$-], 
1.  41,  but  is  present  in  [h3.it],  1.  30,  the  acoustic  test  being  positively 
confirmed  by  the  organic  analysis.  Yet  no  [j]  is  present  in  [wa:0], 
1.  15,  or  in  ['jumVa:s],  1.  42,  ['pAimanant],  1.  45.  In  11.  33,  34,  the 
pronunciation  [a]  for  are,  our,  evidently  represents  an  occasional 
and  unsettled,  not  a  fixed  and  permanent  habit,  see  11.  36,  41.  The 
loss  of  [j]  in  ['kAmfat],  1.  21,  is  a  very  wide  spread  phenomenon, 
noticeable  even  in  the  speech  of  those  who  commonly  retain  [i] 
before  consonants;  cf.  the  pronunciation  fkAmftabl]  for  comfortable. 

The  pronunciation  [la:f],  1.  22,  [fa:st],  1.  38,  [kla:sp],  1.  40,  is  con- 
sistent for  this  passage,  but  Mr.  Lawrence  declares  that  in  an  in- 
formal pronunciation,  say  if  he  went  into  a  stationery  store  and 
asked  for  paper-clasps,  he  would  say  [klsesps].  Further  examination 
showed  that  in  words  of  this  type  he  sometimes  pronounced  [a:], 
sometimes  [se]. 

The  pronunciations  ['kansti'tut],  1.  35,  [nte'tuj],  I.  18,  [en'0u- 
zisezm],  1.  18,  cannot  be  taken  as  indicating  a  constant  preference  of 
[u],  [u]  for  [ju]  after  [t],  [d],  etc.,  for  sometimes,  especially  under  full 
stress,  the  pronunciation  is  [ju],  as  in  [nju:],  1.  7. 

The  diphthongal  vowel  in  [sou],  1.  1,  is  due  to  an  exceptionally 
strong  stress  in  this  word,  and  so  also  in  other  cases  of  [ou]. 

For  the  vowel  of  not,  God,  what,  etc.,  the  pronunciation  [a]  is 
constant.  Observe  that  for  the  accented  vowel  in  make,  take, 
patriotism,  they,  etc.,  a  diphthong  was  not  present,  even  under 
strong  stress.  As  to  final  unstressed  syllables,  note  [^beisaz],  1.  20, 
['raitSasnas],  1.  20,  etc.,  beside  ['fitid],  1.  11,  ['leveld],  1.  15.  The 
mixed  character  of  this  pronunciation  is  not  an  individual  pecu- 
liarity but  is  quite  generally  characteristic  of  cultivated  American 
speech. 

VII 

'woiknj 

?Sa  'p^ai  av  'eksasaiz  iz  dui  fAist  tu  a  'pjuali  'fizikl 
im'pre$an,  send  'sekandh  tu  a  sens  av  'pauai  in  'sek$an. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  177 

Sa  fAist  so :s  av  rple38j,  'veiriz  av  kois  wiS  aua  kan'di- 
$an  send  Sa  steit  av  Sa  sa'raundin  'sAikam^stsensaz;  Sa 
5  'sekand  wi  Si  a'maunt  send  kaind  av  'paua,  send  Si 
ek'stent  send  kaind  av  'aek$an.  in  oil  foimz  av  'aektiv 
'eksasaiz,  Sai  a  0rii  'pauaz  xsaimal'te-niasli  in  'aek$an, 
—  Sa  wil,  Sa  'ulasIz  nd  Si  'mtelekt.  iit$  av  Si:z  pri- 
'dam^ne-ts  in  'difrant  kaindz  av  'eksasaiz.     in  'woi- 

io  kin,  6a  wil  n  'eqasIz  a  so  a'kAstamd  ta  wAik  ta'geSaj,  n 
pa'foim  Sea  taesk  wiS  so  'litl  ek'spendit$u.i  av  fa  is  Sa?t 
Si  'mtelekt  iz  left  kam'psentivli  frii.  Sa  'mentl  'ple39j 
in  'woikin,  az  sAt$,  iz  in  Sa  sens  av  'pauai  'ovai  oil  aua 
'muivirj  ma'$inan  .  .  . 

is  'hiai  and  Saeu,  Sa  fi:ld  w  z  'datid  wiS  smoil  'flauaz. 
Mer'eva  ju  lukt,  ju  sai  Sea  'goildn  hedz  'nadir)  in  Sa 
briiz.  Se-  fild  Si  aei  wiS  Sea  'nt$  'o:da.  it  waz  a 
'maival  Sat  sAt$  'taini  'blasamz  $ud  hsev  so  'veri  'hevi 
a  pa'fjum.     in  'kAla  Se*  'veirid  fram  nt$  'arind3  ta 

20  'peilist  'jelo.  wAn  woikt  'weir  li  fo  'fiaj  av  'krA$irj 
Sem  'Anda  fut. 

Walking 

The  pleasure  of  exercise  is  due  first  to  a  purely 
physical  impression,  and  secondly  to  a  sense  of  power 
in  action.  The  first  source  of  pleasure  varies  of  course 
with  our  condition  and  the  state  of  the  surrounding 
circumstances;  the  second  with  the  amount  and  kind 
of  power;  and  the  extent  and  kind  of  action.  In  all 
forms  of  active  exercise  there  are  three  powers  simul- 
taneously in  action,  —  the  will,  the  muscles  and  the 
intellect.  Each  of  these  predominates  in  different 
kinds  of  exercise.  In  walking,  the  will  and  muscles 
are  so  accustomed  to  work  together,  and  perform  their 
task  with  so  little  expenditure  of  force,  that  the  intel- 


178  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

lect  is  left  comparatively  free.  The  mental  pleasure 
in  walking,  as  such,  is  in  the  sense  of  power  over  all 
our  moving  machinery  .  .  . 

Here  and  there,  the  field  was  dotted  with  small  flowers. 
Wherever  you  looked,  you  saw  their  golden  heads 
nodding  in  the  breeze.  They  filled  the  air  with  their 
rich  odor.  It  was  a  marvel  that  such  tiny  blossoms 
should  have  so  very  heavy  a  perfume.  In  color  they 
varied  from  rich  orange  to  palest  yellow.  One  walked 
warily  for  fear  of  crushing  them  under  foot. 

REMARKS 

Down  to  the  break,  this  passage  is  from  Holmes'  Autocrat.  The 
concluding  sentences  were  made  up  for  the  purpose  of  transcrip- 
tion. The  pronunciation  is  that  of  Mr.  H.  W.  Wells,  who  has 
always  lived  in  New  York  City,  with  occasional  short  periods  of 
residence  in  New  England.  Final  [i]  appears  in  Mr.  Wells's  pro- 
nunciation in  unstressed  syllables  before  vowels,  and  usually, 
though  not  always,  before  pauses.  In  1.  5,  the  two  words  with  the 
are  run  together,  with  only  one  consonant  between  them.  In  1.  10, 
are  is  made  very  unemphatic,  the  sound  being  recorded  as  [a], 
though  it  is  better  described  as  a  weakened  form  of  [a].  Nasaliza- 
tion of  vowels  is  marked  in  Mr.  Wells's  pronunciation.  In  strongly 
stressed  syllables  or  words  like  there,  1.  15,  air,  1.  17,  the  vowel  is 
[»:],  but  not  in  weak  syllables,  as  in  there,  1.  7,  their,  11.  16,  17,  or 
in  varies,  1.  3,  varied,  1.  19,  warily,  1.  20.  The  stress  in  perfume, 
1.  19,  as  a  noun,  is  usually  on  the  first  syllable. 

VIII 
daut 

An'foitjanatli  d3Ast  az  ai  waz  trai'Amfntli  'aensanrj, 
"'sAitnli  nat,"  a'nA^a  'kwest$an  mait$t  'mta  mai 
mamd,  is'koitad  bai  a  'veri  di'faiant  "o:t." 

"oit  ai  ta  gou,  Men  ai  haev  sAt$  a  di'beit  a'baut  at?" 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  179 

5  bat  Mail  ai  woz  po'plekst,  nd  'skafin  set  mai  oun 
'skruplz,  So  'fen-xbel  'sAdnli  raerj,  nd  'aensod  oil  mai 
'kwest$onz.  inValon'terili  ai  'hArod  on  bood.  So  bo  it 
slipt  from  So  dak.  ai  went  Ap  on  dek  tu  m'd30i  So 
vjui  ov  So  'siti  from  So  bei,  bot  d3Ast  oz  ai  saet  daun, 

io  n  ment  tu  hev  sed,  "hau  'bjutofol,"  o  faund  mo'self 
'seskin,  "oit  ai  tu  hev  kAm?" 

lost  in  po'pleksin  di'beit,  ai  soi  'litl  ov  So  'smori  ov 
So  bei;  bot  So  n'membrons  ov  pruu  nd  So  ^entl  'm- 
fluons  ov  So  'dei  'pLmd3d  mi  'into  o  muid  ov  'pensiv 

is  'revon  Mit$  'nA0irj  'tendod  to  dis'troi,  an'til  wi  'sAdnli 
a'raivd  ot  So  'hendin. 

Doubt 

Unfortunately,  just  as  I  was  triumphantly  answer- 
ing " Certainly  not!"  another  question  marched  into 
my  mind,  escorted  by  a  very  defiant  ought. 

"  Ought  I  to  go  when  I  have  such  a  debate  about 
it?" 

But  while  I  was  perplexed,  and  scoffing  at  my  own 
scruples,  the  ferry-bell  suddenly  rang,  and  answered 
all  my  questions.  Involuntarily  I  hurried  on  board. 
The  boat  slipped  from  the  dock.  I  went  up  on  deck 
to  enjoy  the  view  of  the  city  from  the  bay,  but  just 
as  I  sat  down,  and  meant  to  have  said  "how  beautiful! " 
I  found  myself  asking: 

"Ought  I  to  have  come?" 

Lost  in  perplexing  debate,  I  saw  little  of  the  scenery 
of  the  bay ;  but  the  remembrance  of  Prue  and  the  gentle 
influence  of  the  day  plunged  me  into  a  mood  of  pensive 
reverie  which  nothing  tended  to  destroy,  until  we  sud- 
denly arrived  at  the  landing. 


180  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

REMARKS 

The  passage  is  from  George  William  Curtis,  Prue  and  I,  and  the 
transcription  is  the  reading  pronunciation  of  Mr.  George  Summey, 
Jr.,  a  native  of  Kentucky,  of  North  Carolina  parentage,  who  has 
lived  in  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  since  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  in  North  Carolina.  His  manner  of  speech  would  strike  any 
attentive  observer  as  Southern,  but  not  markedly  so.  His  speech 
is  slow,  and  more  attention  is  given  to  unstressed  syllables  than  is 
customary,  though  the  vowels  are  not  necessarily  made  clearer. 

1.  1.  [An'fo:t$anatli].  There  is  no  trace  of  a  consonant  for  r 
before  consonants  and  finally. 

1.  4.   [at].     Very  lightly  stressed. 

1.  5.    ['skafirj].     The  more  usual  pronunciation  is  ['skafrrj]. 

1.  7.  ['hArad].  A  more  common  standard  pronunciation  would 
be  ['hArid],  or  [TiArid],  the  latter  to  be  preferred. 

[boad].     The  vowel  is  distinctly  short. 

[bo:t].  No  trace  of  diphthongal  quality,  but  when  final,  as  in 
[gou],  1.  4,  the  diphthong  is  present. 

1.  10.  ['bjutafal].  In  a  word  like  this,  if  one  had  a  mark  for 
accent  indicating  a  degree  between  half-stress  and  unstressed,  one 
would  employ  it  on  the  second  and  third  syllables  to  suggest  Mr. 
Summey's  pronunciation.    More  commonly  pronounced  ['bjutrfal]. 

1.  12.  ['smaii].  The  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  is  not  usually 
lowered. 

1.  13.  [pruu].  The  diphthong  very  distinct,  perhaps  because  of 
the  slow  tempo. 

['influans].     More  commonly,  ['influans]. 

1.  14.   [mu:d].     For  common  standard  [mu:d]. 


IX 

*0aena'tapsas 

tu  him  hu  in  Sa  Iav  av  'ne:t$9j  hoildz 
ka'mjunjan  wi0  hsj  'vizibl  foumz,  $i  spiiks 
a  'veirias  1aer)gwid3;  foj  iz  'geiai  'auaiz 
$i  hsez  a  vois  av  'glsednas,  nd  a  small 


TKANSCRIPTIONS  181 

5  nd  'elakwans  av  'bjuti,  nd  $i  glaidz 

intu  hiz  'daukaj  'mjuziqz,  wi0  a  maild 
nd  'hiilirj  'simpafli  Sat  stiilz  a'wei 
<5ej  'Jaupnas,  eu  hi  iz  a'weu.    Men  0o:ts 
av  t5a  laest  'bitaj  'auai  kAm  laik  a  blait 

10  'ovaj  oai  'spirat,  nd  seed  'imid3az 

av  Sa  stajn  'aegani,  nd  $raud,  nd  poil, 
nd  'bre0las  'dauknas,  nd  oa  'nsero  haus, 
meik  <5i  ta  '$Adaj,  nd  gro:  sik  set  haut;  — 
go i  fou0  'Andai  <5i  'oipn  skai,  nd  list 

is  ta  'neitjajz  'tiitjirjz,  Mail  fram  oil  a'raund — 

Bid  nd  haa  'wataaz  nd  t5a  dep0s  av  eu  — 
kAmz  a  stil  vois. 


Thanatopsis 

To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 

Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 

A  various  language;  for  his  gayer  hours 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 

And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 

Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 

And  healing  sympathy,  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware.    When  thoughts 

Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 

Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 

Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall, 

And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house, 

Make  thee  to  shudder,  and  grow  sick  at  heart;  — 

Go  forth,  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 

To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around  — 

Earth  and  her  waters,  and  the  depths  of  air  — 

Comes  a  still  voice. 


182  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

REMARKS 

This  passage  represents  the  informal  reading  pronunciation  of 
Mr.  F.  L.  Mott,  a  native  and  resident  of  Iowa.  The  only  pronun- 
ciations which  call  for  comment  are  [0o:ts],  1.  8,  which  has  been 
recorded  with  [o:],  but  which  has  a  sound  between  [a:]  and  [o:];  in 
1.  16  ['wataaz]  has  distinctly  [a];  in  11.  2,  6,  with  has  a  voiceless  final 
consonant.  For  r  final  and  before  consonants  the  transcription  [j] 
has  been  used,  though  perhaps  the  sound  is  nearer  [rj. 

X 

sen  'elaVe-tad  xkanv9r'sei$an 

ai  waz  'gourj  daun  taun  on  Si  'elaVe-tad  Sis  'seftar- 
rnuin  nd  psest  Sa  taim  bai  'lisnin  ta  Sa  xkanvar'sei$an 
av  a  'nAmbar  9v  'sku:l-vgarlz.  Sa-  war  fram  waii  av 
Sa  'siti  'hai-^skuilz,  n  war  drest  laik  Sa  'doitarz  av 
5  'wel-ta-'du:  'peirants.  Se-  war  oil  'veri  mAt$  ik'saitad 
'ovar  n  igz8emi'ne:$an  in  'inglij  'litara'tSur  Mit$  ad  bin 
held  in  Sa  skuil  Saet  'moirnin.  waii  av  Sa  garlz  siimd 
'veri  mAtS  dis'tarbd  'ovar  Si  'aensar  ta  waii  av  Sa  'kwes- 
t$anz.     "o  garlz,"  $i  sed,  "ai  want  a  nou  a'baut  So:z 

io  oudz.  ai  no i  waii  waz  bai  kiits  n  waii  waz  bai  'Jell,  n 
ai  no  i  waii  waz  a'baut  a  'skai-xla:rk  n  waii  waz  a'baut 
a  'nartanxge:l,  bat  ai  domt  noi  'MeSar  ai  gat  Sam 
streit."  "Mai,"  'aensard  WAn  av  har  kam'psenjanz, 
"'$eli  roit  Sa  waii  a'baut  Sa  'naitanvge:l  n  kiits  Sa  waii 

15  a'baut  Sa  'skai-xlairk."  "Seir  nau,"  moind  Sa  garl 
hui  hsed  aeskt  Sa  'kwest$an,  "iznt  Saet  tui  baed!  ai 
d3Ast  nu:  aid  get  Soiz  baidz  mikst,  n  ai  did." 

An  Elevated  Conversation 

I  was  going  down  town  on  the  Elevated  this  after- 
noon and  passed  the  time  by  listening  to  the  conver- 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  183 

sation  of  a  number  of  school-girls.  They  were  from 
one  of  the  city  high-schools,  and  were  dressed  like  the 
daughters  of  well-to-do  parents.  They  were  all  very 
much  excited  over  an  examination  in  English  literature 
which  had  been  held  in  the  school  that  morning.  One 
of  the  girls  seemed  very  much  disturbed  over  the 
answer  to  one  of  the  questions.  "O  girls,"  she  said, 
"I  want  to  know  about  these  odes.  I  know  one  was 
by  Shelley  and  one  was  by  Keats,  and  I  know  one  was 
about  a  sky-lark  and  one  was  about  a  nightingale,  but 
I  don't  know  whether  I  get  them  straight."  "Why," 
answered  one  of  her  companions,  "  Shelley  wroterthe 
one  about  the  nightingale  and  Keats  the  one  about 
the  sky-lark."  "There  now,"  moaned  the  girl  who 
had  asked  the  question,  "isn't  that  too  bad!  I  just 
knew  I'd  get  those  boids  mixed,  and  I  did." 

REMARKS 

This  represents  the  conversational  pronunciation  of  Mr.  G.  W. 
Mead,  practically  all  of  whose  life  has  been  passed  in  the  Middle 
West.  There  is  no  [j]  in  Mr.  Mead's  pronunciation,  except  occa- 
sionally in  unstressed  final  syllables.  In  1.  6  ['litare't$ur]  is  a  some- 
what formal  pronunciation  for  informal  ['litarot^aj].  For  want,  the 
transcription  is  [want],  1.  9,  and  so  it  would  be  generally  in  this 
pronunciation  for  words  like  watch,  water,  swan,  etc.  A  rather 
slow  tempo  accounts  for  the  diphthongs  in  [nou],  1.  9.  [oudz],  1.  10, 
both  stressed.  But  [no:],  1.  10,  is  only  relatively  lightly  stressed. 
For  ['naitanvge:l],  1.  12,  ['naitn'ge:l]  might  have  been  written.  In 
1  17  [baidz]  is  New  York  dialect  for  birds. 

XI 

np  vaen  'wmkl 

aez  hi  waz  a'bseut  ta  di'send,  hi  hAid  a  vois  fram  a 
'distans  'haeluin,  "rip  van  'winkl!     rip  vaen  'wirjkl!" 


184  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

hi  lukt  raeund,  bat  kud  sii  'nA0irj  bat  a  krou,  'wirjirj 
its  'salivten  flait  a'kros  (5a  'maeuntn.  hi  0oit  iz  'faensi 
5  mAst  av  di'siivd  im,  nd  tAind  a'gen  tu  di'send,  Men 
hi  hAid  (5a  seim  krai  nrj  0rui  (5a  stil  'iivnirj  eia;  "rip 
vaen  'wirjkl!  rip  vaen  'wirjkl!"  —  aet  (5a  seim  taim  wulf 
'brisld  Ap  hiz  baek,  nd  'givin  a  lou  'graeual,  skAlkt  tu 
hiz  'maestaz  said,  'lukirj  'fiafli  daeun  'intu  t5a  glen. 

10  rip  naeu  felt  a  veig  aepri'henjan  'stiilirj  'ova  him;  hi 
lukt  'aenjasli  in  (5a  seim  di'rekjan,  nd  pa'siivd  a 
stre:nd3  'figja  'slouli  'toilin  Ap  oa  raks,  nd  'bendrrj 
'Anda  <5a  we  it  av  'sAm0irj  hi  'kaerid  on  hiz  ba3k.  hi  waz 
sa'praizd  ta  sii  'em  'hjuman  'biun  in  t5is  'lounli  nd 

15  An'frikwentid  pie  is;  bat  sa'poizirj  it  ta  bi  'sAmVAn  av 
<5a  'neibayhud  in  niid  av  hiz  a'sistans,  hi  'heisnd  daeun 
ta  jiild  it. 

on   'nira  a'proitj   hi  waz  stil  moi  sa'praizd  aet  ba 
singju'lenti  av  <5a  'streind3az  a'pirans.    hi  waz  a  $oit 

20  'skwea-vbilt  old  'felo,  wi(5  0ik  'bu$i  'heia  nd  a  'grizld 
'biad.  hiz  dres  waz  av  t5i  aen'tiik  dAt$  'fae$n:  a  klo0 
'd3Sjkn  straept  raeund  oa  weist,  'sevral  'peia  av  'bnt$iz, 
t5a  'aeuta  WAn  av  'aempl  'valjam,  'dekaVe-tid  wrS  rouz 
av  'bAtnz  daeun  $a  saidz,  nd  'bAnt$az  aet  (5a  niiz.    hi 

25  boir  on  hiz  'Joilda  a  staeut  keg,  t5aet  siimd  fAl  av  'lika, 
nd  me-d  sainz  fa  rip  ta  a'proitj  nd  a'sist  im  wi0  (5a 
loud.  "So  'raet5a  $ai  nd  dis'trAstfal  av  t5is  nju  a'kwe-ntns, 
rip  kam'plaid  witS  iz  'ju3Jal  a'laeknti;  nd  'mjut$uali 
n'liivirj  WAn  a'nA$a,  oV  'klaembad  Ap  a  'naero  'gAli, 

30  a'peirantli  t5a  drai  bed  av  a  'maeuntn  'torant. 


jes,  Saet  'eldali  'le-di  iz  'mizaz  wai0.  $i  livz  in 
't$ailstn.  (5a  tu  gAilz  ai  ha  'doitaz,  6a  'misis  wai0. 
'mizaz  wai0  iz  a  gre-t  '1a va  av  'mjuzik,  nd  'raeili  'eva 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  185 

'misaz  a  'simfani  'kan'sAit.     in  (5a  'sAma  $i  spendz  9 
35  gre-t  dill  av  ha  taim  in  (5a  'gaidn,  'wotanrj  nd  'trimirj 
ha  plaents.    $i  iz  pa'tikjali  fond  av  pa'tuinjaz. 


Rip  Van  Winkle 

As  he  was  about  to  descend,  he  heard  a  voice  from 
a  distance,  hallooing,  "Rip  Van  Winkle!  Rip  Van 
Winkle!"  He  looked  round,  but  could  see  nothing 
but  a  crow  winging  its  solitary  flight  across  the  moun- 
tain. He  thought  his  fancy  must  have  deceived  him, 
and  turned  again  to  descend,  when  he  heard  the  same 
cry  ring  through  the  still  evening  air;  "Rip  Van  Winkle! 
Rip  Van  Winkle!"  —  at  the  same  time  Wolf  bristled 
up  his  back,  and  giving  a  low  growl,  skulked  to  his 
master's  side,  looking  fearfully  down  into  the  glen. 
Rip  now  felt  a  vague  apprehension  stealing  over  him; 
he  looked  anxiously  in  the  same  direction,  and  per- 
ceived a  strange  figure  slowly  toiling  up  the  rocks, 
and  bending  under  the  weight  of  something  he  carried 
on  his  back.  He  was  surprised  to  see  any  human  being 
in  this  lonely  and  unfrequented  place;  but  supposing 
it  to  be  someone  of  the  neighborhood  in  need  of  his 
assistance,  he  hastened  down  to  yield  it. 

On  nearer  approach  he  was  still  more  surprised  at 
the  singularity  of  the  stranger's  appearance.  He  was 
a  short,  square-built  old  fellow,  with  thick  bushy  hair, 
and  a  grizzled  beard.  His  dress  was  of  the  antique 
Dutch  fashion:  a  cloth  jerkin  strapped  round  the 
waist,  several  pair  of  breeches,  the  outer  one  of  ample 
volume,  decorated  with  rows  of  buttons  down  the 
sides,  and  bunches  at  the  knees.  He  bore  on  his 
shoulder  a  stout  keg,  that  seemed  full  of  liquor,  and 


186  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

made  signs  for  Rip  to  approach  and  assist  him  with 
the  load.  Though  rather  shy  and  distrustful  of  this 
new  acquaintance,  Rip  complied  with  his  usual  alac- 
rity; and  mutually  relieving  one  another,  they  clam- 
bered up  a  narrow  gully,  apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a 
mountain  torrent. 

Yes,  that  elderly  lady  is  Mrs.  Worth.  She  lives  in 
Charleston.  The  two  girls  are  her  daughters,  the 
Misses  Worth.  Mrs.  Worth  is  a  great  lover  of  music, 
and  rarely  ever  misses  a  symphony  concert.  In  the 
summer  she  spends  a  great  deal  of  time  in  her  garden, 
watering  and  trimming  her  plants.  She  is  particularly 
fond  of  petunias. 

REMARKS 

This  passage  down  to  the  break  represents  the  slightly  formal 
reading  pronunciation  of  a  paragraph  or  two  from  Irving's  Rip 
Van  Winkle  as  read  by  Miss  Susan  Lewis,  a  native  and  always  a 
resident  of  Texas.  After  the  break  come  several  made-up  sentences 
of  somewhat  less  formal  character.  The  tempo  was  rather  slow, 
the  diphthongal  quality  of  some  sounds  being  thus  more  marked 
than  ordinarily.  For  jerkin,  1.  22,  a  somewhat  literary  and  unfami- 
liar word,  we  have  ['d39ikn],  probably  as  a  spelling-pronunciation, 
since  r  is  regularly  omitted  by  Miss  Lewis  before  consonants.  In 
final  position,  r  is  also  silent,  even  before  words  beginning  with  a 
vowel,  except  [ba:r],  1.  25,  where  the  [r]  is  perhaps  due  to  the  [o:], 
see  above,  §  305.  In  the  concluding  passage,  compare  the  pronun- 
ciation of  Mrs.,  Misses  and  misses,  and  for  Mrs.,  see  above,  §  320. 
As  Miss  Lewis  pronounces  Mrs.,  the  word  is  almost  a  monosyllable 
with  a  long  final  consonant.  For  rarely,  1.  33,  perhaps  the  tran- 
scription should  be  ['rseialij.  The  stressing  of  concert  fkan'sAit], 
I.  34,  is  noteworthy.  In  general  the  vowel  [a:]  is  only  slightly  tense 
in  Miss  Lewis's  pronunciation.  In  I.  26  [wi0  ?fo]  is  a  good  example 
of  phonetic  differentiation,  the  voiceless  consonant  in  [wi0]  being 
evidently  assumed  to  keep  the  word  separate  from  [Sal. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  187 

XII 

'haemlits  spi:t$ 

spiik  Sa  spi:t$,]  ai  prei  ju,  jsez  ai  pra'naunst  it  tu  juJ 
'tnpirjli  on  Sa  tAn;i  bat  if  ju  mauS  it, j sez  'mem  av  j  jo 
'pleiaz  du:,!ai  hsed  aez  liif  Sa  taun  kraia  spoik  mai 
lainz.l  no  du  not  so:  Si  e:a  t\i\  mAtJ^wiS  jua  hsend, 
5  Sas,  bat  juz  oil  ^entli;  farm  Sa  'veri  'toTent, ; 'tem- 
pist,;  send  aez  ai  mei  sei,:Sa  'M^ilVind  av  'psejan,  ju 
niAst  a'kwaiaa"  and  bi'get  a  'temparans  (Sset  mej  giv  it 
'smu^Snas.  o  it  a'fendz  mi  ta  Sa  soul  tu  hiXp  ro'bAS- 
t$as  j 'periVig-'peJtad   'feloVteij^a  'psejan   tu  'tsetazJ 

io  tu  'vefi  rsegz,  tu  split  Si  'iaz  av  (5a  'graundlinz,'  hui 
fo  Sa  most  paitja:  'kejpabl  av  'nA0in  jbAt  m'eksplikabl 
'dAm-'Jouz  send  noiz.  ai  kud  hsev  sAt$  a  'felo  A\rpt  fol 
\):'duurj  'termagant;!  it  xaut'heradz  rherad;  prei  ju 
a' void  it* 

15  bi:  not  tu  teim  'ni  iSax  bat  let  juaj  oun  dis'kre$an 
bi  jua  'tjutax;  sjut  Si  'aekjan  tu  Sa  we:d^  Sa  we:d  ta 
61  'sekjan;  wiS  Sis  'spe$al  ,ab'z£ivans,  Saet$u  bi'step 
not  Sa  'modasti  av  'neitjaij  fol  'enir0irj  so  xova'dAn  iz 
from  Sa  'peipas  av  'plenn,*  huz  end, 'bod  set  (5a  f^istj 

20  send  nau,  woz  send  iz,  tu  hould,  aez  tweu,  Sa  'mrfa^ 

^Ap  tu  'neitSa^jtu  $ou  've:t$u  haX_oun  'fiit^,  skoin 

ha£  oun  'imid^,  send  Sa  'yen  eid3  and  'bodi  av  Sa 

taim,  ;hiz  foim  and  'pretax I  nau  Sis  xova'dAn,  0  kAm 

'taidi  o:f,  So  it  m0tk  Si  An'skilfal  la  if,  'kse^not  bat  me/k 

25  Sa  d3u'di$as  griiv;  Sa  'sen$aTav  Sa  Mit$  WAn  mAst  in 
juaj  a'lauansjbi'wei  a  houl  'fliataj  av  'ASaz,» 

Hamlet's  Speech 

Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to 
you,  trippingly  on  the  tongue;  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as 


188  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

many  of  your  players  do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town-crier 
spoke  my  lines.  Nor  do  not  saw  the  air  too  much 
with  your  hand,  thus,  but  use  all  gently;  for  in  the 
very  torrent,  tempest,  and,  as  I  may  say,  the  whirl- 
wind of  passion,  you  must  acquire  and  beget  a  tem- 
perance that  may  give  it  smoothness.  0,  it  offends 
me  to  the  soul  to  hear  a  robustious  periwig-pated  fel- 
low tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  very  rags,  to  split  the 
ears  of  the  groundlings,  who  for  the  most  part  are 
capable  of  nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb-shows  and 
noise.  I  would  have  such  a  fellow  whipped  for  o'er- 
doing  Termagant;  it  outherods  Herod;  pray  you, 
avoid  it. 

Be  not  too  tame  neither,  but  let  your  own  discretion 
be  your  tutor;  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word 
to  the  action;  with  this  special  observance,  that  you 
o'erstep  not  the  modesty  of  nature;  for  anything  so 
overdone  is  from  the  purpose  of  playing,  whose  end, 
both  at  first  and  now,  was  and  is,  to  hold,  as  't  were, 
the  mirror  up  to  nature;  to  show  virtue  her  own  fea- 
ture, scorn  her  own  image,  and  the  very  age  and  body 
of  the  time  his  form  and  pressure.  Now  this  over- 
done, or  come  tardy  off,  though  it  make  the  unskilful 
laugh,  cannot  but  make  the  judicious  grieve;  the  cen- 
sure of  the  which  one  must  in  your  allowance  o'erweigh 
a  whole  theater  of  others. 

REMARKS 

The  transcription  of  this  passage  from  Hamlet,  Act  III,?Scene  II, 
represents  the  pronunciation  of  Miss  Theodora  Ursula  Irvine,  a 
professional  teacher  of  public  speaking,  who  has  given  particular 
attention  to  training  students  for  the  stage.  The  passage  is  not 
rendered  in  a  highly  formal,  dramatic  style,  but  as  the  sense  of  it 
would  seem  to  demand,  in  what  might  be  called  a  formal  natural 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  189 

style.  The  tempo  is  somewhat  slower  than  conversation,  and  some 
sounds  are  given  clearer  and  different  values  than  they  would  have 
in  familiar  style.  Long  [e]  and  [ol  are  more  diphthongal  than  they 
customarily  are  in  American  speech. 

1.  2.  [jua].  A  final  [j]  is  distinctly  present  when  the  succeeding 
word  begins  with  a  vowel,  or  in  logically  prominent  words  followed 
by  a  pause.  When  final  before  immediately  following  words  with  a 
consonant,  no  r  is  audible  in  Miss  Irvine's  pronunciation,  though 
internally  r  before  a  consonant  is  sometimes  given  audible  value, 
sometimes  not.  This  is  so  slight,  however,  that  it  seemed  better 
not  to  record  it  in  the  transcription.  Intervocalic  r  is  commonly 
trilled  by  Miss  Irvine,  though  not  strongly,  but  r  after  a  consonant, 
as  in  ['tnpirjli],  1.  2,  is  not  trilled.  The  most  notable  feature  of  Miss 
Irvine's  pronunciation  is  the  value  given  to  vowels  e,  i  in  stressed 
syllables  before  r  followed  by  a  consonant.  This  has  been  transcribed 
as  [e:j,  as  in  11.  6,  13,  16,  19,  21.  The  symbol  is  not  adequate,  how- 
ever, since  the  sound  is  not  the  same  as  the  vowel  of  there,  where, 
etc.,  but  may  be  described  as  a  mid  front  tense  neutral  vowel,  which 
is  kept  distinct  from  both  [a:]  and  [a]. 

Miss  Irvine  pronounces  your  as  [jua]  or  [joa]  indifferently.  Words 
with  'long  o'  are  not  always  strongly  diphthongal,  sometimes  not 
at  all,  as  in  [spo:k],  1.  3.  In  1.  8  the  exclamation  [o]  is  short  and  not 
strongly  stressed. 

For  o  in  not,  1.  4,  modesty,  1.  18,  body,  1.  22,  etc.,  Miss  Irvine's 
sound  is  closer  to  [o]  than  to  [a]. 


XIII 

fgTO\U)  oild 

f9j  'fojti  'jiajz  nekst  'i-st9i  del, 
him  n  mil  in  wind  n  'wetmi 
hav  bin  o-'gitn  bent  n  grei 
'mogn  o'lon  to'geSai. 

wu  nat  so  'veri  oild,  ov  kojs! 
bat  stil,  wi  emt  so  'oifal  sprai 
oz  Men  wi  went  to  siqan-Nsku:l 


190  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

a'fut  n  kros  lats,  him  nai  — 
n  woikt  bsek  ho:m  S9  'lorjggst  wei  — 
10  n  ^9  mum  a-Jainan  on  89  snou, 

'meikn  (5a  roid  9z  brait  9z  del 
n  hiz  vois  'toikn  lou. 

lsend  seiks!    d3est  'hiai  mi  to:k  — 
hi  oil  <5a  wajld,  d38st  laik  9  gajl, 
15  mi:  —  null  'siksti!  —  'wel  —  9  —  'wel! 

ai  waz  so  toil  n  strorj,  tfo  k9jl 
in  mai  'he^j,  sim  sed,  W9z  laik 
t5o  'krinklz  in  9  'med9J  bruk, 
so  braun  n  brait!    bat  'Seiaj! 

20  ai  ges  hi  gat  9t  frAm  9  buk. 

hiz  to:k  in  <5em  <5ej  deiz  W9Z  ful 

ov  d36st  set§  'nan^sens  —  'do-nt$u  0irjk 

ai  'didnt  laik  9t,  faj  ai  did! 

ai  woikt  9'lorj  Seu  glsed  t9  drink 

25  hiz  W9jdz  in  laik  <5o  bre0  9  laif  — 

'hev9nz  n  9J0,  Mat  fuilz  wi  'wim9n  bii! 
n  Men  hi  aest  mi  f9j  iz  waif, 
ai  'sensaad  'jes/  9v  kois,  ja  si:. 

n  Sen  kAm  wajk,  n  'trAbl  bit  — 
30  nat  mAt$  taim  f9j  'Lw^toik  Sen! 

wi  bo:t  9  fa  urn  n  'mojgidsd  it, 
n  wajkt  n  sleivd  laik  oil  po'sest 
ta  lift  ftaet  'tarebl  'graindn  we  it. 

ai  wo:$t  n  t$9jnd  n  soud  — 
35  n  'tjildaan  kAm.  til  wi  haed  eit 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  191 

az  lisensam  beibz  az  'evai  groud 
ta  woik  ba'said  a  'mA(5ajz  nil. 
tSe*  helpt  mi  ben  it  oil,  ja  sii. 

it  emt  bin  'nA0an  els  bat  skrAb 
40  n  rAb  n  beik  n  stui 

tSa  hAl,  hAl  taim,  ovaj  stoiv  ai  tAb  — 

no  taim  ta  rest  az  men  foiks  dui.  — 

ai  tel  ja,  sam'taimz  ai  sit  n  0rrjk 

hau  nais  <5a  greiv  1  bii,  d3est 
45  wAn  nais,  swiit,  'evaa'lsestn  rest! 

o  doint  luk  'skeait!    ai  mi  in 

d3est  JAset  ai  sei.    eint  'kreizi  jet, 

bat  its  a'nAf  ta  meik  mi  sou  — 

av  kojs  it  eint  no  jus  ta  fret  — 
50  hu  sed  it  waz?    its  'n8et$ajl,  Sou, 

bat  ou,  if  ai  waz  'oinli  '(Seiaj  — 

in  (5a  psest,  n  JAn  WAns  'moiai  — 

n  hsed  <5a  'knrjklz  in  mai  'heiai  — 

n  aumz  az  raund  n  strorj,  n  said 
55  az  it  waz  Sen!  —  aid  —  aid  — 

aid  dui  at  oil  'ovai  a'gen,  laik  a  fuil, 

ai  spoiz!    aid  teik  (5a  pein 

n  waak  n  'wAri,  beibz  n  oil. 

ai  spoiz  0irjz  gou  bai  SAm  big  ruil 
60  av  gadz  oun  buk,  bat  mai  oul  brein 

kaent  fiks  am  Ap,  so  ail  d3est  we  it 

n  dui  mai  duti  Men  its  'kliaj, 

n  trAst  ta  him  ta  meik  at  streit. 

'gudnas!    nuin  iz  'olmo-st  'hiai 

6s  n  Sei  (5a  men  kAm  0rui  5a  geit! 


192  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

Growing  Old 

F'r  forty  years  next  Easter  day,  - 
Him  and  me  in  wind  and  weather 
Have  been  a-gittin'  bent  'n'  gray 
Moggin'  along  together. 

We're  not  so  very  old,  of  course! 
But  still,  we  ain't  so  awful  spry 
As  when  we  went  to  singin'-school  " 
Afoot  and  'cross  lots,  him  and  I  — 
And  walked  back  home  the  longest  way  — 
An'  the  moon  a-shinin'  on  the  snow, 
Makin'  the  road  as  bright  as  day 
An'  his  voice  talkin'  low. 

Land  sakes!    Jest  hear  me  talk  — 

F'r  all  the  world,  jest  like  a  girl, 

Me  —  nearly  sixty!  —  Well  —  a  —  well! 

I  was  so  tall  and  strong,  the  curl 

In  my  hair,  Sim  said,  was  like 

The  crinkles  in  a  medder  brook, 

So  brown  and  bright!  but  there!  ' 

I  guess  he  got  it  from  a  book. 

His  talk  in  them  there  days  was  full 

Of  jest  sech  nonsense  —  Don't  you  think 

I  didn't  like  it,  for  I  did! 

I  walked  along  there,  glad  to  drink 

His  words  in  like  the  breath  o'  life  — 

Heavens  and  earth,  what  fools  we  women  be! 

And  when  he  asked  me  for  his  wife, 

I  answered  'yes,'  of  course,  y'  see. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  193 

And  then  come  work,  and  trouble  bit  — 
Not  much  time  for  love  talk  then! 
We  bought  a  farm  and  mortgaged  it, 
And  worked  and  slaved  like  all  possessed 
To  lift  that  tumble  grindin'  weight. 

I  washed  and  churned  and  sewed  — 
An'  childurn  come,  till  we  had  eight 
As  han'some  babes  as  ever  growed 
To  walk  beside  a  mother's  knee. 
They  helped  me  bear  it  all,  y'  see. 

It  ain't  been  nothin'  else  but  scrub 

An'  rub  and  bake  and  stew 

The  hull,  hull  time,  over  stove  or  tub  — 

No  time  to  rest  as  men  folks  do.  — 

I  tell  yeh,  sometimes  I  sit  and  think 

How  nice  the  grave  '11  be,  jest 

One  nice,  sweet,  everlastin'  rest. 

0  don't  look  scart!    I  mean 

Jest  what  I  say.    Ain't  crazy  yet, 
But  its  enough  to  make  me  so  — 
Of  course  it  ain't  no  use  to  fret  — 
Who  said  it  was?    It's  nacherl,  though, 
But  O,  if  I  was  only  there  — 
In  the  past,  and  young  once  more  — 
An'  had  the  crinkles  in  my  hair  — 
An'  arms  as  round  and  strong,  and  side 
As  it  was  then!  —  I'd  —  I'd  — 

I'd  do  it  all  over  again,  like  a  fool, 

1  s'pose!    I'd  take  the  pain 


194  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

An'  work  an'  worry,  babes  and  all. 
I  s'pose  things  go  by  some  big  rule 
Of  God's  own  book,  but  my  oP  brain 
Can't  fix  'um  up,  so  I'll  just  wait 
An'  do  my  duty  when  it's  clear, 
An'  trust  to  Him  to  make  it  straight. 

Goodness!  noon  is  almost  here, 

And  there  the  men  come  through  the  gate! 

REMARKS 

From  Prairie  Songs,  by  Hamlin  Garland,  pp.  142-144.  The 
volume  was  published  in  1893,  and  the  poem  represents  a  rustic 
dialect  of  the  Middle  West,  specifically  Iowa,  as  spoken  by  the 
pioneer  settlers.  It  has  now  passed  out  of  existence,  except  for 
sporadic  survivals  in  country  districts  which  have  been  only  slightly 
affected  by  the  leveling  influences  of  public  school  instruction. 

In  this  and  the  following  dialect  passages,  the  author's  method 
has  been  to  transcribe  as  dialectal  only  what  it  seems  to  have  been 
the  intention  of  the  original  writers  of  the  passages  to  indicate  by 
means  of  spelling  as  dialectal.  Otherwise  the  passages  have  been 
transcribed  in  familiar  colloquial  style,  appropriate  to  the  general 
tone  of  the  writings,  but  not  necessarily  peculiar  to  any  particular 
dialect.  It  should  be  remembered  that  writers  of  dialect  literature 
seldom  endeavor  to  indicate  dialect  features  either  exhaustively  or 
systematically.  Mr.  Garland  has  made  no  attempt  to  indicate 
different  kinds  of  r  in  this  poem,  but  r  before  consonants  and  finally 
is  usually  [rj  in  Iowa  speech,  both  dialect  and  cultivated,  or  even  at 
times  back  r,  see  §  44. 

XIV 

'jaenki  spiit$ 

naeu  iz  So  'winta  av  'aeua  'diskan'tent 
med  'glonos  'sAma  bai  Sis  sAn  a  joik, 
n  oil  So  'klaeudz  Sot  laeuod  o'pAn  aeua  haeus 
in  So  di:p  'bAzam  a  Si  'oi$in  'berid; 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  195 

5  nseu  89  seua  brseuz  bseund  iS  vik'tonas  rit(5z; 
aeua  'brjuizid  aimz  hAij  Ap  fa  'moni'mens; 
seua  stain  a'laramz  't$8end3d  ta'meri  'miitrrjz, 
seua  'drefl  'mait$iz  ta  da'laifl  'mersaz. 
rgrim-Vizid3d  wo:  he0  'smjuiSd  hiz  'rirjkld  frAnt, 
io  n  nseu,  in'stid  a  'mseuntin  'beabid  stiidz 
ta  frait  <5a  soulz  a  'fAifl  'edva'seriz, 
hi  'keipaz  'nimli  in  a  'leidiz  'tjsemba, 
ta  t5a  la'sivias  'pliizirj  av  a  lu:t. 

Yankee  Speech 

Neow  is  the  winta  uv  eour  discontent 

Med  glorious  summa  by  this  sun  o'  Yock, 

An'  all  the  cleouds  thet  leowered  upun  eour  heouse 

In  the  deep  buzzum  o'  the  oshin  buried; 

Neow  air  eour  breows  beound  'ith  victorious  wreaths; 

Eour  breused  arms  hung  up  fer  monimunce; 

Eour  starn  alarums  changed  to  merry  meetins, 

Eour  dreffle  marches  to  delighfle  masures. 

Grim-visaged  war  heth  smeuthed  his  wrinkled  front, 

An'  neow,  instid  o'  mountin'  barebid  steeds 

To  fright  the  souls  o'  ferfle  edverseries, 

He  capers  nimly  in  a  lady's  chamber, 

To  the  lascivious  pleasin'  uv  a  loot. 

Now  is  the  winter  of  our  discontent 

Made  glorious  summer  by  this  sun  of  York, 

And  all  the  clouds  that  lour'd  upon  our  house 

In  the  deep  bosom  of  the  ocean  buried; 

Now  are  our  brows  bound  with  victorious  wreaths; 

Our  bruised  arms  hung  up  for  monuments; 

Our  stern  alarums  changed  to  merry  meetings, 


196  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

Our  dreadful  marches  to  delightful  measures. 
Grim-visaged  war  hath  smooth' d  his  wrinkled  front, 
And  now,  instead  of  mounting  barbed  steeds 
To  fright  the  souls  of  fearful  adversaries, 
He  capers  nimbly  in  a  lady's  chamber, 
To  the  lascivious  pleasing  of  a  lute. 

REMARKS 

In  the  introduction  to  the  First  Series  of  the  Biglow  Papers, 
Lowell  gave  a  version  of  the  opening  lines  of  Richard  III,  using 
the  ordinary  spelling  to  indicate  as  exactly  as  he  could  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  rustic  Yankee  of  his  day.  Lowell's  spelling  is  given 
here  for  the  sake  of  comparison  with  the  phonetic  transcription  of 
it  which  precedes  it.  The  passage  represents  dialect  New  England 
speech  of  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  but  many  of  the  charac- 
teristics indicated  by  Lowell  still  survive.  The  author  has  profited 
by  a  phonetic  transcription  of  the  passage  made  by  Professor 
Grandgent,  in  From  Franklin  to  Lowell,  A  Century  of  New  England 
Pronunciation,  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association, 
Vol.  VII  (New  Series),  p.  239  (1899). 

After  having  given  a  description  of  New  England  dialect  speech, 
Lowell  adds,  "To  the  dish  thus  seasoned,  add  a  drawl  ad  libitum,71 
but  he  does  not  try  to  represent  the  drawl. 

1.  1.  [nseu].  As  the  first  element  in  the  diphthong,  [se]  for  [a]  is 
still  heard  in  New  England  and  in  certain  regions  of  the  South. 

1.  3.   [a'pAn].     Still  current  dialectally. 

1.  6.  [nbrjuizid].  See  also  ['sm]u:tSd],  1.  9.  Grandgent,  in  the 
article  cited  above,  pp.  224-226,  notes  a  confusion  in  the  use  of  [u] 
and  [ju]  in  New  England  speech  which  was  at  its  height  about  1820 
and  which  affected  both  polite  and  dialect  speech.  As  a  result  a 
pronunciation  [ju]  was  often  transferred  to  words  where  it  was 
organically  difficult  to  pronounce,  as  in  ['brjuizid]  or  where  it  did 
not  historically  belong,  as  in  ['smjuiftd]. 

1.  7.  [sta:n].  The  pronunciation  of  e  followed  by  r  and  a  con- 
sonant as  [a:],  which  still  persists  in  England,  e.g.,  in  clerk  [kla:k], 
Derby  ['daibij,  etc.,  is  nowhere  current  in  cultivated  American 
speech  and  has  almost  if  not  completely  disappeared  from  the  dia- 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  197 

Iects.  New  England  words  which  are  pronounced  with  [a:]  are 
written  with  a,  as  in  Marcy  from  older  Mercy,  darn,  the  expletive, 
from  older  dern  (which  of  course  also  persists  as  [dam,  dAin]), 
tarnal  probably  from  eternal. 

XV 
'auti  and  'khidi 

"'mcisii  aet?,,  ri'pitad  Sa  'mesmd3aj  boi  .  .  .    Men  hi 

2eskt  "'mcjsii  set?"  hi  pra'naunst  it  "'iieisn,"  and  in 

oil  hiz  'sAbsikwant  toik,  hi  geiv  Sa  "s"  a  soft  and 

'hisirj  saund  wel  pra'lorjd,  tu  Sa  'evadant  in^oimant 

5  av  'auti  and  (5a  maild  'wAndajmant  av  'milai. 

"mcjz  hu:  set?"  di'msendad  'auti,  a'daptir)  a  fraun 
and  a  hau$  'msenaj. 

"wai,  ta  'fou-^aid  nabz  dset  sent  mi  aut  on  ta  saut 
said." 
io      "ai  ju  Sa  seim  'litl  boi?    'wudnt  Sset  frost  ja,  Sou, 
'milai?    Sis  az  'litl  'brait-xaiz  Sat  tuk  Sa  noit  faj  hoil." 

"oi,  Mats  'istn  ja?"  aeskt  Sa  boi,  'giviq  a  'wou^laik 
kail  ta  Sa  'ko.ina.iz  av  hiz  mau0. 

"oiu,  aiu!  'lisn  ta  Sset.     ail  'bet$aj  Sa  'tAfast  boi 
is  Sat  'evaj  'hsepnd.     'Mat$u  bin  'duan  oil  del,  'pleian 
'maublz  faj  kiips  aj  'stsendn  in  frAnt  a  waii  a  Sem 
daim  mju'ziamz?" 

"o:,  sen;  ja  tink  jaj  flai.    dset  JAn  'felai  sent  mi  oil 
ta  wei  ta  'foiti-Hrii  'namti-Hrii  'kselamet  'aevnui.    ai 
20  'kudnt  git  beek  no-  'sunai." 

"hu  waz  it  Sa  noit  waz  tui?" 

"hiz  rseg,  a  ges." 

"o:u!    hiz  raeg!     Va^a  0irjk  a  Saet,  'milai?    emt 
Sis  boi  a  bajd!    kn  ja  biit  im?    kn  ja  tai  nn?    boi, 
25  jui  oil  rait." 

"so-  aj  ju  —  dset  iz,  frAm  jai  hed  Ap." 


198  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

"n  tSa  fiit  daun,  hA?  juj  waii  a  t5em  "hAli  t$ii, 
't$ani'  boiz,  'eint$a?  jaj  so  tAf  6a-  'kudnt  'dentja  wi6 
n  seks." 
30  "iz  dset  sioiu?"  aeskt  <5a  bai,  wi6  a  'fraitfal  is'keip 
av  "s,"  and  a  'gleaj  sAt$  az  hi  mAst  av  juizd  ta  'tenvfai 
oil  6a  'smoilaj  boiz  set  6a  'kail  xste-$an. 

"if  ai  waz  az  tAf  az  ju  cu,  aid  bi  a'freid  a  mai'self, 
on  6a  'leval." 
35       "ja  tirjk  jaj  'haevn  spojt  wit  mi,  'do-nt$a?    ai  si  in  a 
lat  a  dem  'fAni  mAgz  ba'fou  dis." 

"wai,  'kbidi,  ai  'wudnt  trai  ta  dsoij  ja.    ai  0irjk  jaj 
a  nais,  kliin  boi.    'e:nt$a  'gana  teik  o:f  jaj  gLvvz?" 
'milaj  limd  baek  in  hiz  t$eu  and  hauld  wi6  'lseftaj. 
40      "ai  beg  jaj  'paudn/  kloidi,"  kan'tinjud  'aiiti.    "ai 
0oit  6em  waz  glAvz  ja  haed  on.    d3ii,  iz  6em  jaj  mits? 
jaj  a  bru'net,  'eint$a?" 

6a  'mesmd3aj  boi  hsed  bin  'sAm\viat  'teikn  a'bsek  bai 

61  a'lu3an  tu  hiz  "gLvvz,"  bat  hi  n'kAvajd  and  sed, 

45  stil  'geizirj  set  auti:  "siexi,  jaj  'haevn  oil  kaindz  a  fAn 

wit  mi,  'e:nt$a?    wel,  'wat$u  —  'eniNtin  ju  sei  kAts  no 

ais  wit  mil." 

Artie  and  Claudie 

"Where's  he  at?"  repeated  the  messenger  boy  .  .  . 
When  he  asked  "Where's  he  at?"  he  pronounced  it 
"where  'ce,"  and  in  all  his  subsequent  talk  he  gave 
the  "s"  a  soft  and  hissing  sound  well  prolonged,  to 
the  evident  enjoyment  of  Artie  and  the  mild  wonder- 
ment of  Miller. 

"Where's  who  at?"  demanded  Artie,  adopting  a 
frown  and  a  harsh  manner. 

"W'y,  t'e  four-eyed  nobs  dat  sent  me  out  on  t'e 
Sout'  Side." 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  199 

"Are  you  the  same  little  boy?  Wouldn't  that  frost 
you,  though,  Miller?  This  is  little  Bright-eyes  that 
took  the  note  for  Hall." 

"Aw,  what's  eatin'  you?"  asked  the  boy,  giving  a 
warlike  curl  to  the  corner  of  his  mouth. 

"Oh,  ow!  listen  to  that.  Ill  bet  you're  the  toughest 
boy  that  ever  happened.  What  you  been  doin'  all 
day  —  playin'  marbles  for  keeps  or  standin'  in  front 
o'  one  o'  them  dime  museeums?" 

"Aw,  say;  you  t'ink  you're  fly.  Dat  young  feller 
sent  me  all  t'e  way  to  forty-t'ree  ninety-t'ree  Calla- 
met  av'noo.    I  couldn't  get  back  no  sooner." 

"Who  was  it  the  note  was  to?" 

"His  rag,  I  guess." 

"Oh— h— h— h!  His  rag!  What  do  you  think  o' 
that,  Miller?  Ain't  this  boy  a  bird!  Can  you  beat 
him?    Can  you  tie  him?    Boy,  you're  all  right." 

"So  are  you  —  dat  is,  from  y'r  head  up." 

"An'  the  feet  down,  huh?  You're  one  o'  them 
'Hully  chee,  Chonny,'  boys,  ain't  you?  You're  so 
tough  they  couldn't  dent  you  with  an  axe." 

"Is  dat  so — o — o — o?"  asked  the  boy,  with  a  fright- 
ful escape  of  "s"  and  a  glare  such  as  he  must  have 
used  to  terrify  all  the  smaller  boys  at  the  call  station. 

"If  I  was  as  tough  as  you  are  I'd  be  afraid  o'  my- 
self, on  the  level." 

"You  t'ink  you're  havin'  sport  wit'  me,  don't  you? 
I  seen  a  lot  o'  dem  funny  mugs  before  dis." 

"W'y,  Claudie,  I  wouldn't  try  to  josh  you.  I  think 
you're  a  nice,  clean  boy.  Ain't  you  goin'  to  take  off 
your  gloves?" 

Miller  leaned  back  in  his  chair  and  howled  with 
laughter. 


200  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

"I  beg  y'r  pardon,  Claudie,"  continued  Artie.  "I 
thought  them  was  gloves  you  had  on.  Gee,  is  them 
your  mits?    You're  a  brunette,  ain't  you?" 

The  messenger  boy  had  been  somewhat  taken  aback 
by  the  allusion  to  his  "  gloves,"  but  he  recovered  and 
said,  still  gazing  at  Artie:  "S — s — ay,  you're  havin' 
all  kinds  o'  fun  wit'  me,  ain't  you?  Well,  w'at  you 
—  anyt'ing  you  say  cuts  no  ice  wit'  me." 

REMARKS 

From  Artie,  A  Story  of  the  Streets  and  Town,  by  George  Ade, 
Chicago,  1897.  Artie  exemplifies  a  dialect  of  Chicago  as  spoken  by 
a  free  and  easy  office  clerk,  the  messenger  boy  a  somewhat  lower 
dialect  of  the  streets.  The  dialect  is  of  course  only  partially  indi- 
cated by  the  author's  spellings.  In  1.  1,  the  author  records  a  voice- 
less [m]  in  where,  and  this  has  been  allowed  to  stand,  and  so  also 
in  what,  1.  12,  though  these  are  probably  inadvertencies,  the  boy's 
dialect  apparently  having  only  [w].    For  [aeskt],  1.  2,  see  above,  §  346. 

XVI 
't$mn  'faedn 

brj  taim  sins  jo  sim  mi?  sajt.  'do*nt$a  noi  da 
'ri:zn?  Mai,  ai  waz  'mserid.  'Suaj.  ai  no:d  jad  dai 
Men  ai  toil  ja.  jes,  it  waz  do  rdAt$as;  ai  ges  jo  no:d 
dset.  wel,  'lemi  tel  jo.  it  woz  do  'kojkanast  'wedn  dai 
S  'evaj  woz,  wid  sAt$  mAgz  az  mil  n  da  'dAt$as  'duan  da 
'prinsipl  iVent  a  da  'iivnan. 

sei,  ai  'nevaj  to:t  daj  waz  so  mAt$  'flim-^flsem  baut 
'getn  'redi  ta  bi  'maerid.  ai  'niaj  gat  da  'rsetlz  wAnst, 
n  waz  'gonn  ta  meik  da  grsen  sniik;  bat  ai  tuk  a  breis, 
it  ko:z  ai  waz  'tinkn  dset  if  ai  snuik,  dset  it  wud  'kwiai 
mis  'fseniz  geim,  n  ai  'wudnt  'kwiai  mis  'faeniz  geim 
if  ai  hsed  ta  set  Ap  a  'fjunaral  stid  a  a  'wedn. 

wel,  da  fajst  feik  wot  'pseralaizd  mil  waz  da  'dAt$as 


TKANSCRIPTIONS  201 

'se-on  doi  mAst  bi:  wot  $i:  koild  o  rmaend3  'kantrsekt. 

15  sei,  it  woz  wojs  dan  'getn  aut  o  d-3e:l  on  bed.  ai  ges 
wi:z  'wudnt  bi  'mserid  jet,  if  it  woznt  foi  'mistoj 
'baitn,  wots  mis  'fseniz  'fell,  i:  n  mis  'fseni,  de-  woz 
bo:t  'nioi  'kreizi  baut  'auoi  'wedn,  n  woz  'fAsin  baut 
it  mo: a  don  de-  iz  baut  doj  oun. 

20  wel,  'mistoj  'boatn,  i:  sent  foj  mi,  n  telz  mi  to  kAm 
to  iz  rt$e:mb9jz.  i:  sez  to  mi:,  sez  ii,  'tjeimz/  1  sez, 
'kAm  dis  'iivnon  to  mi  'tSeimbojz.  ai  koilz  mi  'pai.it- 
monts  mi  't$e:mbojz  foj  dis  'ke^on  'oinli,'  sez  i:, 
'givn  mi  do  wink,  'koiz  dis  iz  o  'liigol  'maetai,  n  in 

25  do  ten  'jioiz  aiv  bin  'mitod  to  do  bail,'  sez  ii,  'dis  iz 
do  foist  taim  ai  'evoj  hsed  o  ke:s.' 

Chimmie  Fadden 

Long  time  since  ye  seen  me?  Cert.  Don't  ye  know 
de  reason?  Why,  I  was  married.  Sure.  I  knowed 
ye'd  die  when  I  tole  ye.  Yes,  it  was  de  Duchess;  I 
guess  ye  knowed  dat.  Well,  lemme  tell  ye.  It  was  de 
corkin'est  weddin'  dere  ever  was,  wid  such  mugs  as 
me  an'  de  Duchess  doin'  de  principal  event  er  de 
evenin'. 

Say,  I  never  taut  dere  was  so  much  flim-flam  'bout 
gettin'  ready  to  be  married.  I  near  got  de  rattles 
onct,  an'  was  goin'  t'  make  de  gran'  sneak;  but  I  took 
er  brace,  'cause  I  was  tinkin'  dat  if  I  snook,  dat  it 
would  queer  Miss  Fannie's  game,  an'  I  wouldn't 
queer  Miss  Fannie's  game  if  I  had  t'  set  up  er  funeral 
'stid  er  a  weddin'. 

Well,  de  first  fake  wot  paralyzed  me  was  de  Duchess 
sayin'  dere  must  be  wot  she  called  er  marriage  con- 
tract. Say,  it  was  worse  dan  gettin'  outter  jail  on 
bail.    I  guess  wese  wouldn't  be  married  yet  if  it  wasn't 


202  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

fer  Mr.  Burton,  wot's  Miss  Fannie's  felly.  'E  an'  Miss 
Fannie,  dey  was  bote  near  crazy  'bout  our  weddin', 
an'  was  fussin'  'bout  it  more  dan  dey  is  'bout  dere  own. 
Well,  Mr.  Burton,  'e  sent  fer  me  an'  tells  me  t' 
come  t'  'is  chambers.  'E  says  t'  me,  says  'e,  'Chames/ 
'e  says,  'come  dis  evenin'  t'  me  chambers.  I  calls  me 
'partments  me  chambers  fer  dis  'casion  only,'  says  'e, 
givin'  me  de  wink,  '  'cause  dis  is  er  legal  matter,  an'  in 
de  ten  years  I've  been  'mitted  t'  de  bar,'  says  'e,  'dis 
is  de  first  time  I  ever  had  er  case.' 

REMARKS 

This  passage,  from  the  Chimmie  Fadden  stories  of  Mr.  E.  W. 
Townsend,  represents  a  Bowery  dialect  of  New  York  City.  The 
author  of  the  stories  made  greater  effort  than  is  usual  with  writers 
of  dialect  stories  to  record  a  considerable  body  of  detail  derived 
from  direct  observation.  The  student  will  see,  however,  that  even 
here  the  dialect  is  sometimes  only  suggested,  e.g.,  1.  9  ['go:in  ta 
me:k]  in  popular  speech  like  this  would  be  ['gona  me:k]  or  ['gAna 
me:k],  and  [hsed  to],  1.  12,  would  more  likely  be  ['haeta],  etc.  It  is 
suggested  that  students  make  a  new  transcription  of  the  passage 
not  merely  on  the  basis  of  Mr.  Townsend's  text  but  taking  account 
of  features  of  illiterate  dialect  speech  which  Mr.  Townsend  has  not 
recorded.  Some  of  the  respects  in  which  this  dialect  differs  from 
ordinary  colloquial  English  are  (a)  the  replacing  of  [0]  and  [t5]  by 
[t]  and  [d]  respectively;  (6)  [d3]  becoming  [t$];  (c)  loss  of  final  dentals, 
as  in  [tod],  1.  3,  [green],  1.  9;  final  [n]  for  [rj]  in  the  ending  -ing, 
though  this  is  very  general  in  all  colloquial  speech;  [w]  for  [/&]. 
Writings  like  t'  come  for  to  come,  t'  me  for  to  me,  etc.,  are  tran- 
scribed as  [ta  kAm],  [ta  mi],  etc.,  though  in  this  dialect  there  is 
practically  no  vowel  after  [tj  in  these  phrases,  and  it  might  be 
omitted.  The  occasional  spelling  er,  for  example,  dis  is  er  legal 
matter,  is  probably  intended  to  indicate  only  [a].  The  spelling 
why,  1.  2,  is  probably  an  inadvertence  for  dialect  [wai].  A  feature 
of  this  dialect  which  is  not  recorded  either  in  the  conventional 
spelling  of  the  passage  or  the  phonetic  transcription  is  the  very 
strongly  aspirated  character  of  stop  consonants,  see  above,  §  13. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  203 

XVII 

Sa  vois 

'oil  tSa  'haus  woz  'stil ;  far  ai  biliiv  oil,  iksept  'smd3on 
ond  mai'self,  wo  'nau  n'taiod  to  'rest.  60  'wAn  'kaendl 
woz  'dann  'aut;  So  'rum  woz  'ful  ov  'mumlait.  mai 
'hait  biit  'faist  ond  '0ik;  ai  'ho id  its  '0rob.  'sAdnli  it 
5  'stud  'stil  tu  on  iniks'presibl  'fiilin  Sot  0'rild  it  '0rui 
ond  'paist  ot  'wAns  to  mai  'hed  ond  iks'tremitiz.  So 
fiilirj  woz  'not  laik  on  I'lektnk  '$ok,  bot  it  woz  'kwait 
oz  '$aip,  oz  'stremd5,  oz  'staitlirj;  it  'sektid  on  mai 
'sensiz  oz  if  Seor  Atmoust  sek'tivrti  hrSo'tui  hod  biin 
10  bot  'toipo,  from  wit§  (or  Mit$)  Sei  wo  'nau  'sAmond 
ond  'foist  tu  'weik.  Sei  'rouz  iks'pektont;  'ai  ond  '10 
'weitid  wail  (or  A\ail)  So  'fle$  'kwivod  on  mai  'bounz. 

"'wot  (or  Mot)  ov  (or  hov)  jui  'hoid?    wot  (or  Mot) 
d  (or  do)  jui  'sii?"  aiskt  'sind3on.    ai  'soi  'nA<5irj,  bot 
15  ai  'hoid  0  'vois  'sAmweo  (or  'sAnmeo)  krai  — 
"'d3em,  'd38in,  'dsein!"  —  'nASin  'moi. 
"'ou  'god!  'wot  (or  'Mot)  iz  it?"  ai  'gaispt. 
ai  'mait  ov  (or  hov)  sed,  "'weor  (or  'Meor)  iz  it?" 
for  it  'did  not  siim  in  So  'rum,  noir  in  So  'haus,  noir 
20  in  So  'gaidn;  it  'did  not  kAm  aut  ov  Si  'eo,  noi  from 
Ando  Si  'o;0,  noi  from  ouvo'hed.    ai  od  (or  hod)  'hoid 
it  —  'weo  (or  rM8o),  01  'wens  (or  'Mens),  for  'evo  (or 
'evor)  im'posibl  to  'nou!    ond  it  woz  So  vois  ov  o  'hjui- 
mon  'binn  —  0  'noun,  '1a vd,  'wel  n'membod  'vois  — 
25  'Saet  ov  'edwod   'feofaeks   'rotjisto;  ond  it  spouk  in 
'pern  ond  'wou,  'waildli,  'ionli,  'oid3ontli. 

"'ai  om  'kAmin!"  ai  kraid,  "'weit  fo  mil!    'ou,  ai 
wil  'kAm!"    ai  'flui  to  So  'doi,  ond  'lukt  into  So  'pae- 
sid5;  it  woz  'daik.    ai  'raen  'aut  into  So  'gaidn;  it  woz 
30  'void. 


204  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

"'wear  (or  War)  'ai  ju:?"  ai  iks'kleimd. 
*5a  'hilz  bi'jond  'mcn$  'glen  'sent  Si  'ainsa  'feintli 
bsek,  "'wear  (or  'Aiear)  'ai  ju:?"    ai  'lisnd.    (5a  'wind 
'said  'lou  in  "5a  'faiz;  'oil  waz  'mualand,  'lounlinis  and 
35  'midnait  hA$. 

The  Voice 

All  the  house  was  still;  for  I  believe  all,  except  St. 
John  and  myself,  were  now  retired  to  rest.  The  one 
candle  was  dying  out;  the  room  was  full  of  moonlight. 
My  heart  beat  fast  and  thick;  I  heard  its  throb.  Sud- 
denly it  stood  still  to  an  inexpressible  feeling  that 
thrilled  it  through,  and  passed  at  once  to  my  head 
and  extremities.  The  feeling  was  not  like  an  electric 
shock,  but  it  was  quite  as  sharp,  as  strange,  as  start- 
ling; it  acted  on  my  senses  as  if  their  utmost  activity 
hitherto  had  been  but  torper,  from  which  they  were 
now  summoned  and  forced  to  wake.  They  rose  ex- 
pectant; eye  and  ear  waited  while  the  flesh  quivered 
on  my  bones. 

"What  have  you  heard?  What  do  you  see?"  asked 
St.  John.  I  saw  nothing,  but  I  heard  a  voice  some- 
where cry  — 

"Jane!    Jane!    Jane!" —  nothing  more. 

"O  God!  what  is  it?"  I  gasped. 

I  might  have  said,  "Where  is  it?"  for  it  did  not 
seem  in  the  room,  nor  in  the  house,  nor  in  the  garden; 
it  did  not  come  out  of  the  air,  nor  from  under  the 
earth,  nor  from  overhead.  I  had  heard  it  —  where, 
or  whence,  for  ever  impossible  to  know!  And  it  was 
the  voice  of  a  human  being  —  a  known,  loved,  well- 
remembered  voice  —  that  of  Edward  Fairfax  Roches* 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  205 

ter;  and  it  spoke  in  pain  and  woe,  wildly,  eerily, 
urgently. 

"I  am  coming!"  I  cried.  "Wait  for  me!  Oh,  I  will 
come! "  I  flew  to  the  door  and  looked  into  the  passage; 
it  was  dark.    I  ran  out  into  the  garden;  it  was  void. 

"  Where  are  you?"  I  exclaimed. 

The  hills  beyond  Marsh  Glen  sent  the  answer 
faintly  back,  " Where  are  you?"  I  listened.  The 
wind  sighed  low  in  the  firs;  all  was  moorland  loneliness 
and  midnight  hush. 

REMARKS 

This  passage  is  adapted  from  Jones,  Pronunciation  of  English, 
pp.  73-74.  It  is  supposed  to  be  standard  British  pronunciation 
in  a  careful  conversational  style.  The  passage  is  from  Jane  Eyre, 
Chapter  XXXV.  The  only  changes  that  have  been  made  in  Mr. 
Jones's  notation  have  been  the  use  of  [i]  for  his  [i],  [u]  for  his  [u], 
and  [c]  for  his  [el  to  indicate  respectively  the  slack  qualities  of  the 
several  sounds  as  short  vowels.  Mr.  Jones  regularly  uses  the  sym- 
bol [e]  for  the  vowel  of  rest,  flesh,  etc.,  and  [el,  he  says,  occurs  in 
standard  pronunciation  only  in  the  diphthong  [eaj,  as  in  there, 
their  [Seal,  etc.  This  latter  sound  is  slightly  lower  (or  in  Mr. 
Jones's  terminology,  more  open)  than  his  [e],  as  in  rest,  set,  etc. 
Since  in  this  volume  the  same  symbol,  [c],  has  been  used  for  the 
vowel  of  set  and  the  vowel  of  their,  the  distinction  made  by  Mr. 
Jones  is  not  recorded  in  the  above  transcription.  With  this  excep- 
tion, the  author  thinks  he  has  given  a  faithful  reproduction  of  Mr. 
Jones's  pronunciation.    The  accents  are  those  given  by  Mr.  Jones. 

1.  1.  [haus].  Mr.  Jones  records  the  diphthong  regularly  in  this 
transcription  as  [aul  and  this  accords  with  American  pronuncia- 
tion; but  in  Michaelis- Jones,  A  Phonetic  Dictionary,  the  diphthong 
is  given  as  [auj. 

[far].     The  [t]  here  is  intervocalic  in  context. 

1.  4.  [ha:d].  The  sound  [a:]  is  represented  in  our  alphabet  by 
[a:],  but  it  seemed  best  to  retain  Mr.  Jones's  symbol  for  the  sound, 
which  he  describes  as  half -open  (that  is,  half-low),  mixed  (meaning 
the  middle  portions  of  the  tongue),  tense,  unrounded. 


206  TKANSCRIPTIONS 

1.  8.  [stremd3].  In  American  pronunciation  the  vowel  would  be 
[ei]  or  [e:]. 

1.  9.  [Atmoust].  The  first  element  of  the  diphthong  is  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Jones  as  half-close  (i.e.,  half-high),  back,  slack, 
rounded,  and  it  therefore  corresponds  pretty  exactly  to  [o]  as  this 
symbol  is  used  in  the  present  book.  But  it  did  not  seem  advisable 
to  change  it  to  [o],  for  Mr.  Jones  uses  this  symbol  also,  for  a  sound 
which  he  describes  as  open  (i.e.,  low),  back,  slack,  with  slight  lip 
rounding.  The  difference  between  his  [o]  and  his  [o]  cannot  be 
great,  but  in  any  case  the  first  element  of  his  [ou]  must  not  be  taken 
as  meaning  the  sound  represented  in  our  alphabet  by  [o],  but  a 
sound  nearer  to  [o]. 

XVIII 

'sanit 

(a) 
mAt$  hsev  ai  trsevald  in  t5a  relmz  av  gould, 

and  mem  gudli  steits  and  kirjdamz  si  in; 

round  mem  westan  ctilandz  hsev  ai  biin, 
A\it$  baidz  in  fiialti  tu  apolo  hould. 
S      oift  av  wAn  waid  ekspsens  hsed  ai  bim  tould 

Sat  diip-braud  hoAma  mild  az  hiz  dimiin; 

jet  did  ai  neva  briicS  its  pjua  siriin 
til  ai  hAid  t$sepman  spiik  aut  laud  and  bould: 
San  felt  ai  laik  sAm  wot$ar  av  Sa  skaiz 
io  A\en  a  njui  plsenit  swimz  intu  hiz  ken; 

o  leak  staut  koitez  Men  witS  iigal  aiz 

hi i  stseid  at  8a  pasifik  —  and  oil  hiz  men 
lukt  at  i:t$  Afta  wiS  a  waild  samaiz, 

sealant  apan  a  piik  in  dairien. 

(b) 
1.  1.   goild.  1.  4.   hoild. 

1.  2.   steits.  1.  5.   ikspsens,  bin,  toild. 


TRANSCRIPTIONS 


207 


1.  6.   hoimo. 
1.  7.  pjuia. 


1.  3.  west9in. 

1.  4.  baudz. 

1.  6.  hoimaj. 

1.  7.  pjuu. 


(c) 


1.    8.   boild. 
1.  14.   deinen. 


1.    8.  hajd. 

1.  11.  oj,  koutez. 

1.  12.  staeud. 

1.  13.  ao9j,  S9jmaiz. 


Sonnet 

Much  have  I  traveled  in  the  realms  of  gold, 

And  many  goodly  states  and  kingdoms  seen; 

Round  many  western  islands  have  I  been, 
Which  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  hold. 
Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 

That  deep-browed  Homer  ruled  as  his  demesne; 

Yet  did  I  never  breathe  its  pure  serene 
Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold: 
Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 

When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken; 
Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes 

He  stared  at  the  Pacific  —  and  all  his  men 
Looked  at  each  other  in  a  wild  surmise, 

Silent  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 

REMARKS 

This  sonnet,  by  Keats,  is  transcribed  here  as  given  in  a  Report 
of  a  Joint  Committee  representing  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, the  American  Philological  Association,  and  the  Modern  Lan- 
guage Association  of  America,  on  the  Subject  of  a  Phonetic  English 
Alphabet,  New  York,  1904.  The  first  version  gives  the  sonnet  "as 
read  by  an  Englishman  —  a  graduate  of  Oxford  —  whose  utterance 
may  be  taken  as  fairly  representing  that  of  educated  Londoners" 


208  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

(p.  38).  The  set  of  variant  readings  under  (6)  are  those  differences 
from  the  pronunciations  of  (a)  which  occurred  in  the  reading  of  the 
same  sonnet  by  "a  New  Englander  —  a  member  of  the  Harvard 
faculty."  The  readings  under  (c)  are  those  differences  from  (6) 
which  occurred  in  the  reading  of  the  sonnet  by  aa  Michigan  man 
some  time  resident  in  New  York." 

1.  1  [ai].  In  the  phonetic  alphabet  used  in  the  above  report,  the 
diphthong  known  as  'long  i/  is  regularly  transcribed  with  [a]  as 
its  first  element.  This  transcription  is  retained  in  the  present 
passage,  though  the  author's  observation  is  that  the  vowel  is  ordi- 
narily [a]. 

[gould].  Note  the  diphthongal  character  of  long  vowels  in  the 
Englishman's  pronunciation  as  compared  with  that  of  (b)  and  (c). 

1.  6.  [hoAma].  The  second  element  of  the  diphthong  as  recorded 
here  is  the  vowel  of  much,  one,  etc. 

1.  12.  [staeid].  The  Report,  p.  21,  recognizes  the  similarity  of  the 
vowel  in  this  word  to  [e:].  Might  not  this  word  have  been  tran- 
scribed ['steiad]? 

1.  14.  [apan].  So  recorded  in  all  three  pronunciations,  which 
means  that  it  was  pronounced  by  all  three  readers  without  stress. 
But  it  might  be  pronounced  [a'pon]. 


XIX 
wmd  send  saii 

(a) 
Southern  British 

t5a  noi0  wind  and  t5a  sAn  wai  dis  pjuitrrj  wit$  waz 
(5a  'strongs,  wen  a  'trsevla  keim  a'lorj  rsept  in  a  woim 
klouk.  Sei  a'griid  (Sat  (5a  waii  hui  fAist  meid  6a  'trsevla 
teik  o:f  (h)iz  klouk  §ud  bi  kan'sidad  'strorjga  San  (5i 
'AtSa.  "Sen  t5a  no:0  wind  blu:  wi(5  oil  hiz  mait,  bat  t5a 
mo  i  hi  j  blu  i,  (5a  moi  'klousli  did  (5a  'trsevla  fould  (h)iz 
klouk  a'raund  him;  and  at  laist  fta  noi0  wind  geiv  Ap 
Si  a'tem(p)t.    "Sen  t5a  SAn  $on  aut  'woimli,  and  1'mii- 


TRANSCRIPTIONS  209 

djatli  Sa  'trsevla  tuk  oif  (h)iz  klouk;  and  sou  Sa  noi0 
10  wind  waz  a'blaid3d  ta  kan'fes  Sat  Sa  SAn  waz  Sa 
'strorjgarav  Sa  tui. 

(&) 

Northern  British 

Sa  noj0  wind  and  Sa  SAn  wei  dis'pjuitin  Mit$  waz  Sa 
strorjgai,  Men  a  'travlai  keim  a'lorj  rapt  in  a  woim 
kloik.  Sei  a'griid  Sat  SawAn  hu:  faist  me  id  Sa  'trav- 
lai teik  of  hiz  kloik  $ud  bi  kon'sidaid  'strongaj  San 
S  Si  'ASaj.  Sen  Sa  noi0  wind  blui  wi0  oil  hiz  mait,  bAt 
Sa  mo: j  hi:  blui,  Sa  mou  'kloisli  did  Sa  'travlai  foild 
hiz  kloik  a'raund  him;  and  at  last  Sa  noi0  wind  geiv 
Ap  Si  atem(p)t.  Sen  Sa  SAn  $on  aut  'woirmli,  and 
I'miidjatli  Sa  'travlai  tuk  of  hiz  kloik;  and  soi  Sa  noi0 
10  wind  waz  o'blaid3d  tu  kon'fes  Sat  Sa  SAn  waz  Sa 
'strorjgai  av  Sa  tui. 

(c) 

American  English 

Sa  noi0  wind  an  Sa  SAn  waj  dis'pjutm  az  ta  Mit$ 
waz  Sa  'strain gist,  Men  a  'tisevalai  keim  a'lom,  jsept 
in  a  wojm  klouk.  Se  a'gjiid  Sat  Sa  wAn  hu  me  id  Sa 
'tiaevlai  teik  of  iz  kout  fajst  $ad  bi  kan'sidoid  'stroingai 
5  San  Sa  'aSsj.  Sen  Sa  noi0  wind  bljui  wiS  ol  iz  mait; 
bat  Sa  mou  i  bljui,  Sa  mou  'klousli  Sa  'tiaevlai  'fouldid 
iz  klouk  a'laund  im ;  and  at  lsest  Sa  no  10  wind  geiv  Ap 
Si  a'tempt.  Sen  Sa  SAn  Join  aut  'woimli  (or  ba'gsen 
ta  Jam  aut  hat),  and  in  a  fju  'moimants  Sa  'tisevloi 
io  tuk  of  iz  klouk.  so  Sa  noi0  wind  waz  a'blaid3d  ta 
kan'fes  Sat  Sa  SAn  waz  Sa  'stroingai  av  Sa  tui. 


210  TRANSCRIPTIONS 

Wind  and  Sun 

The  North  Wind  and  the  Sun  were  disputing  which 
was  the  stronger,  when  a  traveller  came  along 
wrapped  in  a  warm  cloak.  They  agreed  that  the  one 
who  first  made  the  traveller  take  off  his  cloak  should 
be  considered  stronger  than  the  other.  Then  the 
North  Wind  blew  with  all  his  might,  but  the  more  he 
blew,  the  more  closely  did  the  traveller  fold  his  cloak 
around  him;  and  at  last  the  North  Wind  gave  up  the 
attempt.  Then  the  Sun  shone  out  warmly,  and  im- 
mediately the  traveller  took  off  his  cloak;  and  so  the 
North  Wind  was  obliged  to  confess  that  the  Sun  was 
the  stronger  of  the  two. 

REMARKS 

These  three  versions  of  the  fable  of  the  Sun  and  Wind  are  taken 
from  a  pamphlet,  The  Principles  of  the  International  Phonetic  As- 
sociation,  pp.  20-22,  published  as  a  supplement  to  the  Maitre  Pho- 
nitique,  Sept.-Oct.,  1912.  They  are  supposed  to  represent  "the 
average  pronunciation  of  educated  persons  in  each  case,"  the  first 
Southern  English  in  England,  the  second  Northern  English  in 
England,  the  third  American  English  "for  New  York  State  and  the 
central  portion  of  the  United  States."  They  are  presented  here  for 
comparative  study,  the  most  interesting  conclusion  from  such  study 
probably  being  the  close  similarity  to  be  observed  between  American 
English  and  British  Northern  English.  The  version  in  American 
English  is  in  some  respects  a  travesty.  It  is  throughout  on  a  more 
colloquial  level  than  the  other  two  versions,  but  besides  is  needlessly 
changed  in  other  details.  In  the  first  sentence,  "as  to  which  was 
the  strongest"  is  dialectal  American  usage,  not  that  of  "educated 
persons."  Similar  uncalled-for  changes  are  "began  to  shine  out 
hot"  for  "shone  out  warmly,"  and  "in  a  few  moments"  for  "im- 
mediately." The  phonetic  details  of  the  version  of  American  Eng- 
lish are  also  open  to  criticism  in  some  respects.  The  sound  of  r  is 
not  the  same  in  all  positions;  the  vowel  of  the  before  other  would 


TKANSCRIPTIONS  211 

not  be  [9];  blew  would  be  [blu:],  not  [bljui];  the  diphthong  in 
might  is  [mait],  not  [mait];  the  vowel  of  strongest,  stronger  is 
short,  not  long;  and  the  diphthongal  character  of  [e:]  and  [o:] 
is  less  marked  and  general  than  the  transcription  would  lead  one 
to  suppose.  The  transcriptions  also  make  a  distinction  between 
British  and  American  use  in  the  vowel  of  wind,  which,  etc.,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  slightly  lower  in  American  than  in  British  use, 
being  high  slack  in  British  pronunciation  and  between  high  slack 
and  high-mid  slack  in  American  usage.  The  reality  of  this  distinc- 
tion seems  very  doubtful,  and  the  author  has  disregarded  it  in  his 
versions  of  the  transcriptions.  For  the  vowel  of  words  like  bird, 
hurt,  when  the  r  is  not  pronounced,  the  symbol  [a:]  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  [a:].  Note  the  Northern  British  use  of  [a]  where  Southern 
British  and  American  have  [ae]. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


The  numbers  refer  to  sections 


a  146 
abject  89 

about  20,  66,  109,  146 
abrasion  333 
absent  87 
absolutely  85,  192 
abstract  87 
abuse  312 
abusive  321 
accept  308 
access  87 
acclimate  91 
account  263 
accurate  234 
accuse  263,  318 
acknowledge  264 
acorn  90 
acoustic  194 
across  343 
action  338 
actual  327,  338 
acute  232 
adamantine  166 
add  83 

added  52,  173 
address  87 
admirable  93 
adobe  174 
adult  89 
adverse  89 
advertisement  96 
advice  312 
advise  312 
aeroplane  144 
aerostat  144 
iEschylus  163 
iEsculapius  163 
^Esop  163 
aesthetic  163 
again  134,  135 


against  134,  135 
agile  212 
ague  234 
Alabama  121 
Albany  174 
albumen  92 
all  45,  185 
allege  329 
allies  87 
alloy  87 
ally  87 

almond  115,  274 
alms  115,  274 
aloof  193 
Altamaha  188 
altruistic  192 
always  134,  146 
amateur  327 
ambergris  315 
amenable  162 
amend  109 
amenity  162 
America  148 
American  201 
anapaest  163 
ancient  327 
angel  246 
anger  249 
angina  166 
angle  249 
angry  249 
annex  87 
annoy  75 
answer  369 
ant  126,  284 
Anthony  348 
anxiety  267 
anxious  267,  327 
anything  297 
aplomb  235 
213 


214 


INDEX 


appendicitis  166 
applicable  93 
appreciate  327 
appreciation  327 
approbation  176 
apricot  130 
apron  304 
aqueduct  344 
archaic  131 
arctic  265 
aren't  112 
Argentine  166 
argot  337 
argue  234 
aristocrat  95 
Arkansas  325 
armistice  92 
ashen  327 
Asia  327 
asked  109,  346 
asphalt  130 
aspirant  92 
associate  327 
association  327 
assume  327 
assumption  300 
asthma  354 
astute  327 
ate  137 
athlete  151 
athletic  151 
attack  99,  343 
attention  327 
audacious  181 
audit  185 
auditory  181 
Audubon  181 
Augean  222 
augur  185 
aunt  124,  126 
aural  185,  190 
aurochs  222 
authentic  181 
author  185 
authority  62 
automatic  181 
autumn  288 
autumnal  288 
auxiliary  269 


avoirdupois  315,  326 
awe  63,  80 
awful  80 
ax-handle  86 
axiom  270,  327 
axiomatic  270 
ay  134 
aye  134 
azure  333 

baby  21 
backed  239 
Baconian  131 
bad  128 
bade  130 
baize  318 
baked  239 
bakery  131 
balk  273 
Balkan  273 
balky  273 
ballet  337 
balm  115,  274 
banal  130 
band-box  243 
bank  289 
banquet  293 
Banquo  293 
barge  246 
basket  52 
bas-relief  120 
bath  128,  352 
bathe  351 
baths  31,  124,  352 
battle  47 
bawl  371 
bay-berry  131 
be  5 
bead  80 
bean  161 
bear  69 
beat  80 
beatific  51 
Beaulieu  107 
beauteous  327 
beauty  229 
beds  35 
beef-steak  86 
been  171 


INDEX 


215 


beet  21,  80 
befogged  15 
beg  139 

begin  52,  172,  173 
belated  240 
belch  341 
Belvoir  107 
bench  341 
bend  135 
Bennett  108 
best  308 
better  14,  206 
between  365 
bib  12,  21 
bilge  246 
bird  154,  155 
Birmingham  97,  257 
Birrell  108 
bison  210 
Bithell  108 
bitter  240 
black  263 
blackguard  268 
blather-  114 
blouse  226 
blue  20 
boat  74 

boil  70,  75,  211,  228 
Bologna  285 
bomb  111,  235 
bombard  204 
bombast  204 
book  60,  193 
booklet  66 
book-shelf  86 
boor  196,  197 
boot  192,  193 
borough  199,  220 
Boswell  111 
both  180,  349 
bother  111,  114 
bough  222 
bought  122,  187 
Boulogne  285 
bounteous  327 
bouquet  194 
Bourchier  107 
bourgeois  315 
Bourgogne  285 


bowie-knife  179 
bowl  74,  224,  371 
boy  75 
Bradbury  97 
branch  124,  127,  128 
brand-new  243 
bran-new  243 
breath  30,  135,  352 
breathe  351 
breaths  352 
breeches  171 
breeching  171 
bridge  329 
bringer  249 
Broadway  86 
Bronx  289 
brooch  194 
broom  193 
broth  111 
Brough  357 
brown  371 
bruit  192 
brusque  195 
Buckingham  257 
buffet  337 
bulge  246 
bull  195 
buoy  228 
buoyant  228 
Burgoyne  285 
Burgundy  285 
burned  241 
Burnett  108 
burnt  241 
burr  154 
burrow  199,  220 
burst  303 
Bury  136 
bury  136,  200,  201 
bush  37,  60,  195 
business  171 
busy  171,  174 
but  198 
butcher  193 
butte  229 
butter  64,  206 
butter-knife  86 
buxom  308 
buy  72 


216 


INDEX 


buzz  198 
by  72 
Byron  153 

cab  128 

cacao  149 

Caedman  309 

calculate  273 

calf  57,  58,  124,  276 

Calhoun  105 

call  9,  22,  263,  309 

calm  115,  274 

calmative  274 

calves  124 

camouflage  334 

Campagna  285 

camphor  299 

can  309 

canon  285 

cant  126 

can't  124,  128 

capillary  96 

car  42,  119 

caret  129 

carriage  129 

carrier  259 

carry  129,  306 

cart  302 

carter  123 

cartridge  307 

case  318 

cases  318 

casual  333 

cats  319 

caught  63,  122,  187,  302 

caulk  273 

ceiling  308 

celibacy  96 

cell  33,  309 

Celt  309 

Celtic  309 

cement  88 

cemetery  98 

cereal  136,  167 

Ceres  136 

certain  206 

chagrin  327 

chaise  327 

chalet  327,  337 


chalk  273,  305 
chalk-line  185 
cham  263 
chamois  327 
champagne  285,  327 
Champlain  327 
chandelier  327 
chaotic  131 
charade  327 
Charlevoix  327 
Charlotte  327 
chary  55,  133,  141 
chassis  327 
chasten  340 
Chatauqua  327 
chateau  177 
Chatham  257 
Chattanooga  327 
chauffeur  327 
chauvinism  327 
Cheboygan  327 
chef  327 
chemise  327 
chemist  137,  263 
Chenango  327 
chequer  369 
Cherokee  327 
cheroot  327 
chest  139 
chestnut  340 
cheval  327 
chevalier  327 
Cheyenne  327 
chic  327 
Chicago  327 
chicanery  327 
chicken  295 
Chicopee  327 
chiffon  327 
chiffonier  327 
Chillicothe  327 
chimney  287 
chin  8 
Chinese  324 
chip  37 
Chippewa  327 
chivalry  327 
chocolate  110 
Choctaw  188 


INDEX 


217 


choir  27,  367 
Christian  327 
church  49,  65 
cinch  308,  309 
Cincinnati  174 
cincture  308 
circle  308 
cite  72 
citron  309 
city  52,  175 
clapboard  298 
Clara  129 
claret  129 
Clark(e)  116,  117 
Claverhouse  105 
cleanly  138 
clerk  67,  117 
climb  235,  236 
climber  236 
climbing  236 
clique  162 
close  312,  343 
closure  333 
clothe  351 
clothes  355 
Coburn  105 
Cockburn  105 
cocoa  13,  149 
coco-nut  149 
coffee  111 
cognac  285 
coign  75 
coin  75 

coincidence  75 
coke  309 
college  173 
collier  259 
colonel  278 
color  42 
Colorado  121 
Colquhoun  105 
column  261 
comb  235 
combat  203 
combatant  92 
combative  92 
combine  87 
come  198 
comfortable  307 


commissure  327 
companion  259 
company  203 
comparison  322 
compass  203 
compensate  91 
complacent  53 
completely  51 
compilable  93 
comptroller  281 
concave  292 
conceit  309 
concentrate  91 
conch  289 
conclave  292 
conclusive  321 
concord  292 
concourse  292 
concrete  292 
concubine  292 
condemn  288 
condemning  288 
condign  248,  284 
confession  327 
confiscate  91 
Conger  291 
Congo  291 
congregate  291 
congregational  291 
congress  291 
congressional  291 
Congreve  291 
congruous  291 
congruity  291 
conjure  202 
Connecticut  265 
connotative  176 
conquer  293,  369 
conqueror  293 
conquest  293,  365 
conscience  327 
conscious  327 
constable  202 
consular  327 
consummate  91 
contact  344 
i  contemplate  91 
contemplative  95 
convene  161 


218 


INDEX 


convention  327 
convict  265 
cook  309 
cool  192 
coop  193 
Cooper  193 
cord  42 
cordial  333 
corn  44,  189 
CorneU  108 
coroner  111 
corp  298 
corps  298 
corpse  298 
corpuscle  zrt)6 
corpuscule  266 
corpuscular  266 
corrosive  321 
cortege  334 
cost  111 
cot  302 
cotillion  262 
cotillon  262 
cough  111,  357 
coughed  336 
could  279 
count  223 
couple  198 
coupon  232 
courage  173,  199 
court  302 
courteous  157,  327 
courtezan  157 
courtier  157 
cousin  198 
cow  73,  222,  223 
Cowan  371 
cowardice  214 
cows  319 
creature  327 
creek  162 
crept  342 
cruel  147 
crumb  235 
crumble  237 
crustaceous  327 
Cuba  146 
cube  232 
cucumber  232 


culinary  232 
culm  274 
cuneiform  232 
cunning  198 
cup  198,  309 
cupboard  86,  238,  298 
cupola  149 
cur  206,  301 
curacao  149 
cure  196,  230 
curse  65,  303 
cushion  195 
cut  64 
cycle  309 
cylinder  52 
Cymric  309 
Cynewulf  309 
czar  326 

damage  173 

damn  288 

damning  288 

dance  56,  57,  58,  124,  127,  128 

Dane  134 

danger  246 

Danish  134 

dare  140 

dart  152 

dash  126 

data  120 

daub  111 

daughter  187 

daunt  186 

day  132 

dead  80 

deaf  138 

deal  147 

death  352 

deaths  352 

debate  173 

debt  54,  80,  235 

debtor  22 

deceive  51 

decide  52,  173,  309 

decision  38 

declamatory  97 

deduct  265 

deed  161 

defensive  321 


INDEX 


219 


deficit  92 
deify  51 
delighted  85 
demonstrate  91 
demur  42 
deniable  93 
dense  54,  312,  341 
deny  209 
depict  265 
depot  337 
Derby  117 
derision  333 
derogatory  97 
description  109 
desist  172 
Des  Moines  314 
despicable  93 
despise  318 
device  312 
devotional  61 
diamond  147 
diary  147 
diction  338 
did  12,  21 
differentiation  327 
difficulty  95 
diffusive  321 
dig  13 

dignitary  97 
dimension  327 
dinner  42 
diocesan  95 
diphtheria  359 
diphthong  359 
dirigible  170 
dirt  65,  67,  69,  206 
discursive  321 
discussion  327 
disgusted  173 
disreputable  93 
dissoluble  93 
dissuade  27 
distinct  289 
distressed  316 
dived  360 
dizzy  35,  318 
do  5,  20,  21,  192 
docile  111 
doe  177 


dog  62,  63,  111,  182,  305 

doing  296 

doU  111 

done  198 

door  191,  197 

double  198 

doubt  235 

dough  13,  177 

dough-nut  176 

drachm  263 

drama  120 

draw  185,  370 

dreamt  299 

dreary  167 

dress  40 

dressy  83 

drown  245 

drowse  371 

Du  Bois  107 

dumb  235 

dune  192 

duteous  327 

duty  231 

dynasty  210 

dysentery  97 

eagle  161 
economy  161 
ecstatic  271 
eczema  92 
educate  135 
e'er  362 
eery  167 
egg  83,  139 
egg-glass  83 
eggs  6 
Egypt  161 
eighth  346 
either  164 
elect  173 
Elizabethan  164 
elk  273 
elm  151,  282 
emaciated  327 
emend  109 
endure  196 
engage  173 
engine  332 
England  138,  249 


220 


INDEX 


English  138,  249 

enough  198,  225 

enow  225 

enthusiasm  231 

enunciate  327 

enunciation  327 

envelope  92 

epistle  340 

epoch  138 

equation  333 

era  148,  167 

erasure  333 

ere  69 

erosion  333 

err  69 
errata  120 
essential  327 
Esther  348 
eternal  161 
evasive  321 
exact  269 
exactly  85 
excellent  271 
except  173,  308 
excess  87,  89 
exchequer  263 
exhale  258 
exhaust  258 
exhaustion  339 
exhibit  7,  258,  269 
exhibition  7,  258,  271 
exhort  258 
exhume  258 
exigency  271 
exile  269,  270 
exit  271 
expansive  321 
expediency  161 
expedient  333 
expire  271 
exquisite  85 
extra  148 
extraordinary  97 
extreme  271 

face  132 
fade  53,  71,  132 
fair  55,  140,  143 
fairy  55,  141 


faith  347 
falcon  273 
falconry  273 
Falkland  273 
famish  28 

fancy  33,  124 

far  301 

fare  55 

farina  210 

farm  44 

Farrar  108 

farther  302 

fashion  56,  99,  126,  128,  327 

fast  50,  56,  57,  58 

fasten  340 

fatally  53,  131 

fate  71 

father  5,  20,  31,  57,  114,  302 

fatigue  21,  162 

fault  185 

Faust  222 

favorite  98,  214 

fear  301 

feat  80 

feather  31,  155 

feature  259,  327 

febrile  212 

February  306 

feeble  45 

feed  80 

feet  80 

feign  284 

fellow  66,  146,  220 

fern  206 

ferry  54,  135 

fetid  164 

fetish  164 

fetter  10 

few  229,  370 

fiery  153 

fifth  349 

figure  234 

filch  341 

film  151,  274,  282 

finally  146 

find  357 

fine  216 

finger  249 

finish  52 


INDEX 


221 


fir  42,  65,  67,  69,  154,  155,  206 

fire  153,  160,  301 

fired  304 

first  303 

fish  327 

fissure  327 

fit  28 

fitted  240 

fixture  339 

flaccid  263 

flange  125 

flapped  239 

flaunt  186 

fleece  208 

floe  177 

floor  191,  197 

flour  160 

flourish  199 

flow  177 

flower  160 

fog  15 

folk  273 

folks  180 

follow  111 

food  193 

foot  193 

fop  110 

for  191,  301 

force  189 

Fordham  257 

fore  191 

forehead  111,  253 

foreign  111,  200,  248,  284 

forest  111 

forge  246 

formidable  93 

fort  302 

fortune  327 

fought  302 

foully  280 

four  152,  191,  301 

fowl  280 

fragile  212 

fragmentary  95 

France  124 

Frasier  333 

Frazier  333 

freak  208 

freeze  208 


freight  253 

frontier  90 

frost  63 

froth  347 

frothed  239 

Frothingham  257 

frothy  347 

frown  73 

fruit  192 

fuchsia  327 

full  60,  195 

fuUy  280 

fulsome  195 

function  289,  338 

fur  42,  65,  67,  69,  154,  155,  206, 

301 
furl  206 
Furness  108 
furniture  327 
furry  306 
fury  196 
fusion  229,  333 

gage  329 
garage  120 
garden  123,  295 
gas  126,  318 
gases  318 
gather  114 
gaunt  186 
gauntlet  186 
geese  21 
gem  8,  329 
Geneva  332 
gentile  212 
gentle  212 
genuine  98,  214 
get  135,  139 
ghetto  253 
ghost  253 
ghostly  253 
gibber  332 
gibbering  332 
gibberish  332 
gibbet  332 
gibe  332 
giblets  332 
gig  247 
gill  332 


222 


INDEX 


Gillett  108 
gin  332 
ginseng  332 
girl  156 
gist  332 
give  364 
glacier  134 
glass  128 
glazier  333 
glimpse  300 
glory  190 
Gloucester  106 
gnarled  248 
gnash  248 
gnat  248 
gnaw  248,  284 
gnome  248 
gnostic  248 
gun  248,  370 
go  5,  218 
go-cart  176 
God  63,  111 
goes  319 
golf  276 
gondola  92 
gone  247 
gong  21 
good  60,  193 
Goodenough  225 
Goodenow  225 
goodness  173 
Goodnow  225 
goose  193 
gooseberry  6 
got  110 
Goth  352 
Gothic  111 
Goths  352 
gout  223 
government  288 
gown  227,  245 
gracious  327 
Graham  257 
grand  125,  128 
grandeur  333 
grandmother  243 
grass  124 
grave  132 
gray  207 


grease  312 
greasy  311 
Greenwich  369 
grew  370 
grey  207 
griefs  361 
grisly  310 
gristle  310 
groom  193 
group  192 
grovel  111 
guano  366 
guard  233,  366 
guava  366 
gubernatorial  233 
Guelph  366 
guess  54,  233,  366 
guest  366 
guide  366 
guile  366 
gulch  341 
gun  233 
gush  233 
guy  209 
gymnasium  333 
gyrate  170 


ha  24 

hair  140,  142,  143 
hairy  141 
half  80,  124,  276 
halibut  130 
halve  80 
halves  124 
Hampden  300 
Hampshire  300 
handkerchief  243 
handsome  243 
hanger  249 
Hannah  305 
harangue  250 
hard  42,  119,  302 
hare  140 
harp  119 
Harry  141 
hart  116 
Harvard  119 
has  56,  125,  126 


INDEX 


223 


hat  24,  50,  56,  82,  128 

hath  30,  126 

haughty  122 

haul  10 

haunt  186 

have  125,  126 

hawk  371 

hay  207 

hazard  318 

haze  132 

he  10,  11,  20,  161 

hear  167 

heard  42,  69,  154,  155 

hearing  167 

heart  116 

hearth  116,  117,  119 

heaven  12 

heavens  295 

heavy  29,  174 

heed  24 

height  350 

heir  254 

heiress  254 

helm  274,  282 

her  67 

herald  256 

heraldic  256 

herb  254 

herbaceous  327 

herbage  254 

herbalist  254 

herbarium  254 

hero  168 

Hertford  117 

hew  24 

hiccough  357 

hid  80 

higher  160 

hilly  45 

him  16 

hinge  246 

hire  160 

hired  304 

his  35,  318 

hissed  239 

history  159,  256 

hit  22,  80 

hod  302 

hog  111 


hollow  111 

holly  280 

holm  274 

Holmes  180,  274 

holy  280 

honest  173,  254 

honor  254 

hood  80 

hoof  193,  361 

hoofs  361 

hook  80 

hoop  193,  373 

Hooper  193 

hooping-cough  373 

hooves  361 

horrid  111 

horse  189 

hosier  333 

hospitable  93 

hospital  46,  111 

host  343 

hostile  212 

hot  50,  57,  110,  182 

hound  227 

hour  254 

house  70,  73,  222,  318 

houses  318 

hovel  111 

hover  111 

howl  224,  371 

hue  24 

huge  24 

Hugh  24 

hulk  273 

Hulme  274 

human  254 

humble  237,  254 

humor  24,  254 

Humphrey  254,  299 

Humphries  254,  299 

hundred  306 

hurry  41,  64,  199 

hurt  50,  65,  67 

husband  86,  198 

hustle  340 

hut  50 

hymn  288 

hymnal  288 

hymning  288 


224 


INDEX 


iamb  238 
Iceland  146 
idea  92,  305 
ill  46 

Illinois  314 
illustrate  91 
impinge  246 
impugn  248 
impulsive  321 
incisive  321 
income  290 
incubate  290 
incubus  290 
indict  265 
individual  333 
indulge  246 
infer  67,  206 
Ingalls  249 
Inglis  249 
initial  172 
injunction  267 
ink  169 
inkwell  84 
inquest  290 
inquiry  92,  290 
insect  344 
instead  139 
institute  327 
institution  327 
insular  327 
interest  98 
interesting  98 
invasion  333 
inveigle  164 
Iowa  148 
iron  304 
irony  304 
Isaiah  134 
issue  327 
isthmus  348 
Italian  175 

Jacob  238 
Jacobs  238 
Jacobson  238 
jamb  235 
January  306 
Japanese  324 
jaundice  175 


Jenny  137 
jenny  137 
Jesuit  333 
jettison  322 
John  111 
join  211,  228,  329 
jostle  340 
jowl  224 

judge  38,  49,  329 
jug  8 
juice  59 
juncture  338 
jury  196 
just  205,  343 

Kansas  325 

keel  22 

keg  139 

Kenesaw  188 

kept  342 

key  5,  161 

khan  263 

kill  9 

killed  241 

kiln  286 

kind  215,  217 

king  263 

kitchen  295 

knee  264,  284 

knell  284 

Knickerbocker  107 

knight  264 

knock  284 

knoll  284 

know  74,  218,  219,  284,  370 

knowledge  261 

Koch  107 

laggard  56 
lair  55,  140 
lamb  235 
lambkin  235 
lamentable  93 
lamps  300 
land  45 
landlady  243 
landlord  243 
language  27,  250,  365 
languid  250,  365 


INDEX 


225 


languish  250 

languor  250 

large  116,  246,  301 

latent  134 

lathe  351 

lather  114,  125 

laud  302 

laugh  124,  127,  357 

laughs  361 

launch  186,  341 

laundry  186 

Laura  186 

lava  120 

law  46,  63,  185 

lazy  318 

lead  54 

league  80,  208 

leak  80 

learned  241 

learnt  241 

lease  318 

leases  318 

lecture  338 

led  54,  80 

ledge  329 

leek  80 

leg  139 

legume  233 

leguminous  233 

leisure  164,  333 

length  272,  294 

lengthen  294 

lense  135 

Leominster  106 

lessee  83 

let  80 

letter  14,  240 

lettuce  173,  336 

library  306 

lichen  210 

lie  209 

lieutenant  357 

life  80 

limber  236 

limped  300 

Lincoln  277 

linger  249,  330 

lingo  250 

lingual  250,  293 


linguist  250 

linguistic  293 

linked  267 

liquor  369 

listen  340 

lit  46 

literature  327 

live  29,  360 

lives  80 

lizard  318 

load  302 

loaf  80,  361 

loam  179 

loaves  361 

locomotive  176 

locust  343 

log  111,  182 

long  62,  63,  183,  289 

longer  249 

longest  249 

longevity  332 

longitude  332 

looked  15 

loose  318 

looses  318 

lord  302 

Louisville  314 

Lucy  231 

ludicrous  59 

lugubrious  233 

Luke  231 

lumber  236 

lunar  192 

lung  289 

lure  60,  196 

luscious  327 

Lusitania  192 

lute  231 

luxury  270,  327 

luxurious  269,  270,  333 

lye  209 

lymph  299 

lyric  169 

mad  dog  83 
magic  329 
Maher  105 
malinger  330 
Maltese  324 


226 


INDEX 


manage  173 

mansion  327 

manufactory  327 

manufacture  327,  338 

margarine  331 

Marjoribanks  105 

marred  116,  119 

marrv  129 

Martha  148 

Mary  55,  133,  141 

Mather  114 

mattock  83 

mature  327 

may  48 

meadow  135 

Meagher  105 
medial  333 
medicine  54 
medium  333 
Meeker  105 
memoir  368 
menage  334 
meningitis  166 
mention  327 
mercy  67 
merit  135 
merry  129,  201 
mewl  371 
Michigan  327 
middle  47 
mignonette  285 
Millard  108 
million  45 
milk  152,  273 
mince  341 
mine  215 
minute  173 
minx  289 
miracle  170,  201 
mirage  120,  334 
mirror  170 
miry  153 
misery  318 
miss  308 
missed  336 
misses  320 
mission  37,  169,  327 
Missouri  174,  313,  318 
mistletoe  310 


mistress  308 
mixture  339 
mnemonic  281 
modulate  333 
moisten  340 
moisture  327 
money  198 
monger  202 
mongrel  202 
monk  289 
monkey  289 
Montana  121,  174 
month  347 
months  349 
mood  59,  193 
moon  193 
moor  60,  196,  197 
Moore  197 
moose  318 
moose's  318 
moral  45,  147,  190 
more  191 
More  197 
Mosher  335 
Mosier  335 
moss  182 
most  180 
moth  111,  352 
moths  352 
Mozier  335 
Mrs.  320 
mule  229 
municipal  96 
murmur  67 
muscle  266 
music  25,  35,  229 
musician  59,  229,  327 
mustache  327 
mute  78 
myrrh  154,  206 
myrtle  154 
myth  30,  347 
mythology  347 
myths  319 

naked  173 
naphtha  359 
nation  66,  327 
national  66,  109 


INDEX 


227 


nature  259,  327 
naught  185 
naughty  122 
nausea  327 
Nebraska  121,  174 
negotiation  327 
neither  164 
nephew  357,  360 
Nero  168 
nestle  340 
neuritis  166 
Nevada  121,  174 
never  42,  155,  206 
new  229,  231 
New  Orleans  314 
news  323 
newspaper  323 
newt  371 
next  343 
nimble  237 
no  48,  74,  284 
Noah  148,  305 
nobby  111 
nod  182 
nodule  333 
nook  193 
Norwich  369 
not  57,  110,  182 
notable  61 
notation  61 
note  61,  74 
nothing  297 
nourish  199 
novel  111 
now  370 
noxious  327 
nude  231 
nurse  303 
nutmeg  139 

oath  219 
oaths  355 
obedient  176,  333 
obligatory  96 
oblige  99 
oblique  166 
occasion  333 
occult  89 
occur  83 


ocean  327 
oceanic  327 
oecumenical  163 
(Edipus  163 
(Enone  163 
o'er  362 

oesophagus  161,  163 
of  7,  363 
off  7,  111 
officiate  327 
often  111,  340 
Omaha  188 
omniscient  327 
on  111,  182 
once  343,  367 
one  27,  367 
onion  259 
only  180 
opera  148 
opponent  92 
oral  190,  306 
orange  111,  173 
Ossian  327 
ostrich  111 
otiose  327 
otium  327 
Ottawa  188 
our  160 
Owen  371 

pacient  327 
pair  55,  69,  140 
palace  173 
palfrey  276 
palm  57,  115,  274 
Palmyra  274 
pansy  125 
pant  126 
pantry  126 
paper  13 
paradigm  248 
pare  55,  140 
parent  129,  133,  153 
Paris  129 
parish  129 
parochial  327 
parquet  337 
part  42,  119,  302 
particular  307 


228 


INDEX 


partner  345 
partridge  307 
party  301 
passion  327 
patent  134 

path  56,  124,  347,  352 
paths  6,  124,  319,  352 
patriot  53,  134 
patriotic  134 
patriotism  134 
patter  128 
Paul  185 
pay  5,  22,  71 
pay-roll  131 
peace  80 
peach  13 
peal  147 
pear  55,  140 
peas  80 
peer  167 
peeress  153 
Pelham  257 
penal  164 
penalize  164 
penalty  164 
pendulum  333 
peninsula  327 
pen-knife  83 
penny  83,  284 
pensive  321 
people  45 
peremptory  96 
perfect  344 
perfection  338 
perfume  87 
period  136,  153 
perish  54,  129,  135 
Persia  327 
persiflage  334 
person  65,  69,  154,  155 
persuade  27,  365 
persuasive  321 
pert  67 

phase  132,  318 
philosophy  28,  357 
phlebitis  166 
phlegm  248 
phlegmatic  248 
phthisic  359 


phthisis  359 

physiognomy  248 

piano  66,  120,  146,  176,  220 

picked  265 

pier  167 

pile  215 

pincers  317 

pinch  317,  341 

pinon  285 

pip  12 

pirate  170 

pitch  82 

piteous  327 

pity  172 

place  53 

plait  130 

pleasure  5,  38,  333 

pleat  130 

plebiscite  92 

plenteous  327 

plumb  235,  236 

plumber  235,  236 

plumbing  236 

pneumatic  298 

pod  57 

poem  147,  173 

poignancy  248 

poignant  248,  284 

Polish  134,  179 

polish  179 

Polk  180 

polka  180 

pollen  111 

pomp  111 

pool  13 

poor  60,  196,  197 

pop  13 

pope  22 

pore  191 

port  189 

position  327 

positive  62 

pot  42,  302 

potato  13,  146 

pour  191 

power  371 

prairie  174 

precinct  165 

preciosity  327 


INDEX 


229 


precious  327 
predecessor  165 
predicate  165 
predigested  165 
predilection  165 
pre-eminent  70 
prefect  165 
preferable  93 
preference  165 
prefix  165 
prehistoric  165 
prejudice  165 
prelate  173 
prelude  165 
premature  165 
premise  87 
premiss  87 
preparation  165 
prepay  165 
preposition  165 
prescience  327 
presentation  165 
pressure  327 
preterite  165 
pretty  138 
priest  161 
prize  5 
probate  178 
problem  178 
proceed  87 
proceeds  178 
process  178 
produce  178 
product  178 
profile  178 
program  90,  178 
programme  90,  178 
progress  178 
project  178 
prolix  178 
prologue  178 
pronoun  178 
pronunciation  327 
proof  193 
prophet  178 
prospect  178 
protest  87,  178 
proverb  178 
provost  178 


Prussia  327 

psalm  33,  115,  274,  275,  298 

psalmist  275 

psalmody  275 

psalter  275 

psaltery  275 

pseudo-  298 

psychology  298 

ptarmigan  298 

pterodactyl  298 

ptomaine  298 

pumpkin  283 

punctilious  267 

punctual  267 

puncture  338 

PurceU  108 

pure  25,  196,  230 

Purnell  108 

purr  67,  206 

purslane  303 

pursy  303 

put  195 

putty  14,  240 

quack  365 

qualm  274 

quarrel  111,  147 

quay  161 

query  167 

question  327,  339,  365 

quick  8 

quinine  90,  213 

quire  365 

quit  27 

quoit  134 

rabbit  173 
racial  327 
radish  130 
radium  333 
raid  53,  132 
raided  240 
raillery  130 
Ralph  276 
rang  289 
raspberry  298 
rate  132 
rated  240 
rather  114,  125 


230 


INDEX 


ratio  327 
ratiocination  327 
rational  126,  327 
rations  130 
read  40 
real  147 
really  147 
realm  151 
rebuke  229 
receive  33 
recess  87 
recluse  312 
recognition  251 
recognizance  251 
recognize  251 
reconnaissance  251 
recrudescence  192 
red  40 
referable  93 
refuse  87 
refutable  93 
reign  248 
reliable  93 
remonstrate  91 
renown  227 
Rensselaer  317 
reptile  212 
reservoir  368 
reveille  262 
revocable  93 
rhomb  238 
rhythm  353 
rhythmic  353 
rhythmical  353 
rice  5,  308 
rich  169 
riches  173 
ride  70,  72 
rides  319 
right  209,  253 
righteous  327 
rile  211,  228 
ringer  249 
rinse  317 
rise  5,  312 
rite  209 
Rivaulx  105 
road  61,  74 
roar  191 


rob  111 
rod  80 

rode  61,  74,  177 
roil  211,  228 
Rolfe  276 
roll  177,  219 
romp  111 
rood  193 
roof  193 
rook  193 
room  193 
rooster  193 
root  193 
rose  74,  219 
rosin  111 
rot  80 
rote  177 
rouge  334 
rough  28,  357 
round  227 
route  194 
rude  231 
rule  192,  231 
rune  192,  231 
rural  196 
ruse  231 
Russia  327 

sacerdotal  309 
sacrifice  210,  312 
said  54 

salmon  115,  274 
salt  185 
salvage  276 
salvation  276 
salve  276 
samphire  299 
sanctify  267 
sanctimonious  267 
Sargent  117 
Saturday  307 
sauce  185 
saucy  185 
saw  50 
saying  296 
scarf  361 
scarfs  361 
scarves  361 
scene  308 


INDEX 


231 


scenic  164 
schedule  263,  333 
Schenectady  174 
schism  263,  308 
schist  327 
schnapps  327 
schottische  327 
Schurman  107 
Schuyler  107 
Schuylkill  107 
scissors  308,  318 
scurry  199 
scythe  308 
sea  51,  76,  208 
seal  147 
seasonable  51 
seat  9,  208 
sedentery  97 
see  20,  50,  51,  76,  208 
seed  51,  208 
seethe  51 
sell  45 
sefior  285 
sensual  327 
sentient  327 
sergeant  117 
serial  136,  167 
series  136,  167 
serious  136 
serpent  154 
serum  136 
service  308 
servile  212 
set  50,  54 
sew  219 
sexual  327 
shackle  327 
shady  21 
shanyt  124 
shawl  37 
sheathe  351 
shepherd  255 
shew  179 
shew-bread  179 
ship  37,  327 
shirt  67,  206 
shone  179 
shook  193 
should  279 


shoved  360 

shovel  111 

Siamese  324 

sieve  33 

sigh  72 

sight  72 

sin  16,  33 

sinew  234 

sing  5,  16,  48,  249,  289 

singer  249 

singing  249,  289,  297 

single  249 

sir  67,  154 

siren  170 

sirup  170 

sit  11,  52,  169 

site  72 

sixth  349 

skiffs  319 

sky  209,  217 

slather  114 

slaughter  187 

sleek  162 

slept  342 

slew  222 

slipped  336 

sloo  222 

sloth  179 

slothful  179 

slough  198,  222 

slue  222 

slur  67 

sniffed  239,  357 

so  219 

soar  191 

sob  111 

social  327 

sod  111 

sofa  146 

soft  111,  182,  305 

soften  340 

solder  279 

soldier  333 

solely  280 

solemn  288 

solemnize  288 

some  64,  198 

son  64 

song  16,  48,  62,  183 


232 


INDEX 


sonnet  173 
soon  192,  193 
soot  193 
sore  191 
sorrow  220 
sort  302 
Soudanese  324 
sought  253,  302 
soul  280 
soup  192 
sovereign  248 
sow  219,  370 
spa  120 
Spain  134 
Spanish  134 
special  47 
speech  13 
spelled  241 
spelt  241 
spilled  241 
spilt  241 
spoil  211 
spoiled  241 
spoilt  241 
Spokane  130 
spoke  61 
spook  193 
spool  13,  192 
spoon  193 
spume  229 
spur  206 
spurious  229 
spurt  67 
squab  111 
squalor  184 
squirrel  201 
staff  361 
staffs  361 
stair  142 
stamp  111 
stamped  300 
star  116 
staves  361 
Stephen  360 
steps  319 
stiff  28,  357 
sting  13 
stir  67 
stirrup  201 


St.  Louis  314 
stock  110 
stole  152 
stood  193 
stop  57 
store  191 
story  190 
straight  71 
strange  246 
strawberry  185 
strayed  71 
strength  272,  294 
strengthen  294 
stringer  249 
stripped  6 
strong  111 
stronger  68,  249 
strongest  249 
suave  120 
substantiation  327 
subtle  235 
subtly  235 
success  87 
such  205 
suction  338 
sufficient  327 
suffragan  252 
suffrage  252 
sugar  327 

suggest  109,  316,  329 
suggestion  327 
suit  192,  231 
sumach  327 
sun  64 
sunk  289 
supper  68 
supple  195 
sure  196,  327 
surprised  307 
surveillance  262 
swallow  111 
swamp  111 
swan  111 
swing  365 
swollen  184 
sword  367 
syllable  169 
sylph  357 
symphony  299 


INDEX 


233 


symposium  333 
synagogue  169 
Syracuse  201 
syringe  170 
syrup  170,  201 

table  12,  45,  47 

tacks  6 

tactile  212 

tags  6 

talk  185,  187,  273,  336 

tar  119 

tare  55 

tarry  129 

taught  185,  187 

taunt  186 

taut  185 

taw  42,  302 

tax  8,  263,  308 

tea  5,  20,  161 

tear  55,  167 

tea-table  161 

tedious  333 

tedium  333 

temporary  97 

ten  135 

tenable  138 

tenet  138 

terrible  135,  142,  201 

Texas  325 

Thames  348 

than  351 

that  31,  351,  356 

their  55 

then  5,  8,  351 

there  50,  55,  69,  140,  142,  143, 

301 
they  132,  351 
thimble  237 
thin  5,  8,  347 
thing  30 
think  289,  356 
this  351 
thistle  310,  340 
Thomas  348 
Thompson  348 
thorough  146,  199,  220 
thou  351,  370 
though  74,  219,  351 


thought  63,  185 
three  41 
throng  183 
thus  31 
thyme  348 
tie  72 
tier  167 
timber  236 
time  216 
timid  169 
tin  13 

tincture  289 
tirade  170 
tired  304 
tissue  327 
Titian  327 
to  192 

toe  13,  74,  177,  302 
tomato  146 
tomb  235 
ton  284 

tongue  249,  25C 
too  20,  76 
tooth  76 

toothsomeness  76 
tore  42,  302 
torrid  111 
tory  190 
tough  198 
tour  194 
tow  74,  177 
tow-path  176 
towel  147,  371 
Townsend  318 
toy  13 
trait  337 
tramp  111 
transfer  87 
transient  327 
tread  40,  135 
treasure  333 
tremble  237 
trench  54 
trouble  198 
troupe  192 
trow  225 
trowel  73 
tube  59,  231 
tuber  327 


234 


INDEX 


tubs  319 
Tudor  327 
tulle  195 
tunic  327 
turn  206 
turret  199 
tutor  327 
twice  343 
twig  365 
two  76,  367 
tyranny  170 
tyrant  170 

union  259 
unison  322 
unkempt  300 
up  64 
upon  109 
urge  246 
usage  173,  322 
use  229,  259,  312 
used  242 
usual  333 
Utah  188 

vacation  53,  131 

vagary  92,  133 

valet  337 

value  234 

vary  133,  141 

vat  29 

vehement  92,  255 

venison  322 

verdigris  315 

very  40,  41,  135,  142,  201,  306 

vest  343 

vex  270 

vexation  270 

vicious  327 

victuals  265 

view  229 

vignette  285 

violet  147 

virile  170 

virtuous  327 

virus  170 

vision  29,  333 

visor  318 

visual  333 


vitiate  327 
vivid  360 
void  75 
vowel  173 

wabble  111 

waif  132 

waistcoat  343 

waive  132 

walk  273 

walked  6 

walks  319 

Waltham  257 

want  111 

war  301 

warmth  299 

wary  55,  133,  141 

was  113 

wash  111,  305 

Washington  111,  305 

wasp  111,  308 

watch  111,  182 

water  14,  111,  182,  240 

wave  132 

weary  167 

Wednesday  244 

weigh  207 

welch  341 

well  82 

Welsh  341 

wen  27 

were  145 

Westcott  343 

wet  27 

what  372 

wheat  372 

when  27 

where  140,  142 

wherry  141 

whet  27 

whey  132 

which  26,  27,  255,  372 

while  26 

whirl  206 

whisper  372 

whistle  310 

whit  26,  27,  372 

white  372 

who  373 


INDEX 


235 


whole  179,  180,  373 

wholly  280 

whoop  373 

whooping-cough  373 

wife  361 

wife's  361 

Wilbraham  257 

Willamette  94 

win  365 

window  146,  176,  220,  305 

Windsor  243 

winter  12,  14,  68 

wire  153 

wired  304 

wiry  153 

wish  5,  37,  343 

wished  239,  336 

wit  27 

witch  27 

with  31,  351,  356 

wives  319,  361 

Woodward  369 

woof  193 

Woolwich  369 

Woolworth  369 

Wooster  106 

Worcester  106 

worst  316 

worth  67,  206 

worthy  154 

would  279 

wound  194 

wrap  367 

wrath  30 

wreathe  351 

wrench  317 

Wrentham  257 


wring  367 
wrist  343,  367 
write  209,  367 
wrong  183,  249 
Wyndham  257 

Xanthippe  326 
Xavier  326 
Xebec  326 
Xenophon  326 
Xerxes  326 

yacht  263 
yawl  25,  259,  371 
yearn  259 
yeast  260 
yelk  136 

yellow  66,  146,  176 
yes  139,  259,  308 
yet  139 
yield  25 
yolk  136,  273 
young  249 
younger  249 
youngest  249 
your  196,  197 
youth  259 
Ypsilanti  174 

zealous  35 
zebra  146 
zebu  370 
zero  168 
zinc  35 
zone  318 
zoology  194 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 
on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


l2Dec'62DTJ 


JAN  1 1 1962i 


fiUGl9lH7»4 


per— 


JUL  25  •, 


1 1 1S6S  3  3 


E£J^ 


SEP2T67-8AM 


TfCoT 

0CT23  1366  87 


LOAN  pert 


OCT  *5  '66-8 


AM 


LOAN  DEPT. 


Vtffl  6    1976  0 


JUW    5  1967  8  8gc»  cia.    m  2  76 


received 


JUN6    '67-11 


IFFrn  t r> — mi  «  •77rwL.RM.5jr 


U.  C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


COS3Si4MOab 


Mt#»> 


868058 


I        THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


